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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



CHILDREN'S STORIES 



THE GREAT SCIENTISTS 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 



Children's Stories of American Progress. 

One volume, \2mo. Illustrated. . . . $i 25 

Children's Stories in American History. 

One vol., 12 mo, with 12 full-page illustrations, $1.25 




FARADAY ANNOUNCING HIS DISCOVERY TO HIS WIFE ON CHRISTMAS 
MORNING, l82I. 



Children's Stories 



OF 



THE GREAT SCIENTISTS 



Henrietta Christian Wright 

AUTHOR OF "CHILDREN'S STORIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY," AND 
"CHILDREN'S STORIES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS" 



V 



ft 



With Portraits 



( OCT 22 \m\ 



NEW YORK 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

1888 



Copyright, 1888, by 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 



0* 



TROWS 

PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, 

NEW YORK. 



03 -a/no 






CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

CHAPTER I. 
Galileo and the Wonders of the Telescope, i 564-1642, . 1 



CHAPTER II. 
Kepler and the Pathways of the Planets, 1 571- 1635, . 35 

CHAPTER III. 
Newton and the Finding of the World Secret, 1642- 
I 727 > • • ' • • 49 

CHAPTER IV. 
Franklin and the Identity of Lightning and Elec- 
tricity, 1 706- 1 790, 66 

CHAPTER V. 
Charles Linn^us and the Story of the Flowers, 1707- 
1778, 9° 

CHAPTER VI. 
Herschel and the Story of the Stars, 1738-1822, . .114 

CHAPTER VII. 

RUMFORD AND THE RELATIONS OF MOTION AND HEAT, 1753— 

1814, I38 



vi CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CUVIER AND THE ANIMALS OF THE PAST, 1769-1832, . c 154 

CHAPTER IX. 
Humboldt and Nature in the New World, 1769-1859, . 176 

CHAPTER X. 
Davy, and Nature's Magicians, 1778-1829, . . . 212 

CHAPTER XI. 
Faraday and the Production of Electricity by Mag- 
netism, 1791-1867, 226 

CHAPTER XII. 
Charles Lyell and the Story of the Rocks, i 797-1875, 238 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Agassiz and the Story of the Animal Kingdom, 1807- 
1874, 261 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Tyndall and Diamagnetism and Radiant Heat, 1825, . 301 

CHAPTER XV. 

KlRCHOFF AND THE STORY TOLD BY SUNBEAM AND STAR- 

BEAM, 1824-1887, 320 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Darwin and Huxley, ^ 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Faraday Announcing His Discovery to His Wife on 
Christmas Morning, 1821, . . . . Frontispiece. 

FACING PAGE 

Galileo Galilei, . . .1 

Sir Isaac Newton, 49 

Benjamin Franklin, 66 

Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford), 138 

Alexander von Humboldt, 176 

Louis Agassiz, 261 

Charles Darwin, 333 




GALILEO GALILEI. 



CHAPTER I. 

GALILEO AND THE WONDERS OF THE TELESCOPE, 
I564-1642. 

Ages ago, in the almost forgotten past, when 
the earth was peopled with the primitive races 
that knew scarcely anything of life outside of 
the thought of food for the day and shelter for 
the night, the laws of nature were quite un- 
comprehended, and all the interesting phenom- 
ena of the universe were either entirely un- 
noticed, or accepted with an ignorant awe that 
never thought of inquiring into their origin. 

And later on, when great nations had been 
formed out of the tribes that once roamed in 
lawless and hostile bands, the wonders of nature 
were still regarded with the same awe, and it 
was even considered impious to question their 
cause or study their effect. 

The wonderful succession of day and night, 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



the recurrence of the seasons, the sun and 
moon, the stars and the winds and the tides, and 
all things else, were only a part of the great 
mystery of life, and all equally incomprehensible, 
from the flaming comet that illumined the heav- 
ens with unnatural brightness to the opening of 
the first bud or the fall of the first snowflake ; 
and it was never dreamed that the time would 
come when man would look upon these things 
with any feeling but amazement. 

And even when the world had grown wise in 
many ways, and there were great cities ruled 
and kept by powerful kings and mighty armies, 
and while poets and painters were making im- 
mortal poems and pictures, and man had learned 
to use the winds and the tides to guide him on 
his journeys, still the unexplained marvels of 
the universe were clothed in sacred mystery, 
and only the priests and astrologers dared to 
study and proclaim their laws. 

From time to time some philosopher, seeking 
earnestly after the truth, would assert that he 
had discovered some secret of nature that would 
lead to the better understanding and use of her 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



laws, but the world seemed so enchanted with 
its own ignorance that the new discoveries were 
either received with unbelief, or the author ac- 
cused of impiety and perhaps sentenced to 
death. 

And so long centuries passed away while man 
seemed to gain knowledge of every other kind, 
but held the world of nature still in childish 
wonder, and was as much terror-stricken by the 
sight of a comet or the eclipse of the. sun as had 
been his remote ancestors who dwelt in caves 
and went naked through the wilderness in 
search of food. 

But there came an age at last when knowl- 
edge had so increased and was so widely dif- 
fused among people of every class, that the 
rulers and priests of a country could no longer 
prevent any new discovery from being made 
known. 

Every city boasted of schools and universi- 
ties, and in them were found not only the great 
scholars and philosophers, but students from 
every class, for ignorance was no longer con- 
sidered desirable, and it was esteemed honor- 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



able to be able to talk of history and literature, 
the fine arts and philosophy. These universi- 
ties were frequented by visitors from all parts 
of the civilized world, and thus it happened that 
any newly discovered scientific truth or theory 
was at once carried to remote places, and in this 
manner the systems taught in one city soon 
became known to the others, and knowledge 
greatly advanced by their mutual intercourse. 
About the middle of the sixteenth century the 
universities of Italy held a high rank among in- 
stitutions of learning, and within their walls 
could be found some of the most earnest and 
enlightened thinkers of the world. Many of 
these gave their days and nights to the study 
of nature, and strove with untiring zeal to grasp 
the secrets that had eluded the wise of other 
ages. 

Among these restless and inquiring spirits 
was Galileo Galilei, a youth of Pisa, who had 
entered the university of his native town at the 
age of nineteen as a student of medicine. 

Although the father of Galileo was not 
wealthy, and a university education for his son 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 5 

would call for considerable denial on his part, 
still the effort was cheerfully made, and the 
rapid progress of the young student immediately 
proved the wisdom of the step. 

From his earliest childhood Galileo had shown 
the greatest talent for mechanical invention, his 
wonderful toys and little models of machinery 
being the admiration and delight of his compan- 
ions, and as he grew older this talent developed 
more and more, and led to some of the most 
important inventions in the history of mechan- 
ics. 

Two years after his entrance at the university 
he noticed one day, while sitting in the cathe- 
dral, a lamp swinging from the roof, and keep- 
ing as it swung a regular and uniform motion. 
This circumstance, which would never have at- 
tracted the notice of the careless observer, at 
once held the attention of the young inventor, 
and he watched the lamp until he became con- 
vinced, by comparing its motion with the beating 
of his pulse, that its vibrations, whether great 
or small, recurred at regular and equal intervals. 
He immediately saw that this discovery might 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



lead to some useful mechanical invention, and 
at once set about verifying it by different experi- 
ments ; the results proved the truth of his sup- 
position, and it then occurred to him that if he 
were able to reckon the vibrations of a swinging 
body from the beat of a normal pulse, he might 
be able to do the reverse and ascertain the 
pulse of a patient by comparing it with the same 
vibrations. He at once constructed a simple 
instrument to test this theory, and the experi- 
ment proved so satisfactory that the invention 
at once passed into common use by all the phy- 
sicians of the day. 

This first pendulum — which was called a pul- 
silogy, from the use it was put to — consisted 
simply of a weight attached to a string, and a 
graduated scale. The string was gathered up 
in the hand till the vibrations of the weight co- 
incided with the beating of the pulse, and it was 
then reckoned from the scale whether the rate 
were normal or otherwise. 

Although the pendulum was invented for the 
sole purpose of assisting in the practice of med- 
icine, yet the discovery of its principle by Ga- 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



lileo led to important results ; previous to this 
there had been many contrivances for the meas- 
urement of time, hour-glasses, sun-dials, water- 
dials, burning candles, and other expedients 
succeeding each other in turn, but none of these 
had been able to measure time so accurately as 
the pendulum, and its use in dividing the day, 
and in astronomical observations soon became 
indispensable. Its invariable regularity was of 
the greatest service to the astronomers, who, 
by means of the pendulum-clock which was in- 
vented some years later by Huygens, a Dutch 
astronomer, were able to make calculations more 
exactly and satisfactorily than ever before, and 
the same instrument in time led to the knowl- 
edge of the real form of the earth. Thus the 
first invention of Galileo not only served the 
practical needs of daily life but was the means 
of advancing scientific observation to a plane 
inaccessible before. 

Although Galileo had entered the university 
as a student of medicine this subject gradually 
lost all charm for him, and he devoted himself 
more and more exclusively to mathematics and 



GALILEO, 1564-1642. 



physics. This change was at first unwelcome 
to his father, but as time passed and he saw 
that his son was irresistibly carried on by his 
new pursuits, he no longer opposed him, and 
allowed him to devote his time to the study of 
natural philosophy. 

An essay on physics brought Galileo to the 
notice of one of the leading mathematicians of 
Italy, and through his influence the young phi- 
losopher was appointed to the lectureship of 
mathematics at Pisa. This new position did 
not prevent his pursuing his studies with undi- 
minished vigor, and his lectures attracted imme- 
diate attention. Almost from the beginning of 
his university career Galileo showed that bold- 
ness and originality of thought which distin- 
guished him in after-life, and won the ill-will of 
several of the professors by his unwillingness 
to accept for truth many of the dogmas which 
they held sacred. 

But Galileo had been brought up under the 
influence of a father who was accustomed to 
give full and free discussion to any subject that 
occupied his mind, and this training, together 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



with his own original genius, made it impossible 
for the son to follow easily in the beaten paths 
of university life, and thus thrown back upon 
himself, and with only the help and sympathy of 
one or two of his companions, he began to find 
out new lines of thought, and to follow paths 
that had hitherto been considered unlawful. 

New ways of solving old questions presented 
themselves freely to his inquiring mind, and 
were tested, and, when found satisfactory, ac- 
cepted with the same readiness that was ac- 
corded the old faiths, and this could not be for- 
given by the professors, who considered it the 
most honorable thing in the world to receive 
the ancient philosophies without question or 
disparagement, and whose greatest ambition it 
was to discover or wring some new meaning 
out of the old texts that would apply to all 
doubts and settle all discussion. And thus 
from the beginning- of his career Galileo was sur- 
rounded by the enemies of progress, and even 
his mechanical investigations were received 
with cold favor. 

But this did not daunt him, and as he ad- 



IO GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

vanced in his studies he subjected all the propo- 
sitions of the old philosophy to the severe test 
of free investigation, glad when he could find no 
flaw in the world-old wisdom, but gladder still 
when he discovered an error the righting of 
which would lead thought into wider and purer 
channels. And the responsibility of his posi- 
tion as a teacher made him the more anxious to 
sift out the good from the bad, while the oppor- 
tunity thus offered of influencing a younger gen- 
eration made him strive with renewed earnest- 
ness after the truth. 

These efforts only served to increase the hos- 
tility that the professors had shown toward him 
in his student-days ; but Galileo persisted in his 
investigations, and proved the folly of some of 
their most cherished beliefs, announcing the re- 
sults of his experiments with a persistent deter- 
mination and faith that won many adherents. 
But his enemies would not listen even when his 
arguments were followed by the most conclu- 
sive proofs ; and on one occasion, when Galileo 
performed the experiment of letting two bodies 
of different weight, fall simultaneously from the 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. II 

leaning tower of Pisa, in order to prove that 
they would reach the ground at the same time, 
his angry opponents refused to believe the 
evidence of their own eyes, and quoted in re- 
ply the sentence from Aristotle which asserted 
that if two different weights were let fall from 
the same height the heavier one would reach 
the ground the sooner. Such obstinacy, com- 
bined with ill-will and distrust, rendered Gali- 
leo's position at Pisa so unpleasant that, when 
an opportunity offered for him to take the chair 
of mathematics at Padua, he did not hesitate, 
and left Pisa after having taught there only 
three years. 

He now began to circulate his writings more 
freely, one essay following another with such 
rapidity, and all embodying such new and star- 
tling theories, that his name soon became fa- 
miliar to the scientific world, and his opinions 
were listened to with a respect that roused the 
fiercest resentment of his enemies. 

One of the most sacred beliefs of the day 
was the Plotemaic theory that the earth was 
the centre of the universe, and that the sun, 



12 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

moon, planets, and stars all revolved around 
it, outside of the atmospheres of air and fire 
which immediately surrounded it. 

Many absurd reasons were given to prove the 
truth of this theory, and philosophers seemed 
willing to accept anything as fact, provided it co- 
incided with this popular superstition, and even 
gravely acquiesced when it was asserted that 
the earth must be the centre of the universe 
because it was the only planet that had a moon. 
This theory took its name from Claudius Ptol- 
emy, an old astronomer and geographer, who 
lived at Alexandria about the middle of the sec- 
ond century a.d. Ptolemy gave innumerable 
reasons for his belief, and said that it would be 
impossible and absurd to believe otherwise. 
About four hundred and fifty years B.C., Py- 
thagoras, a Greek philosopher, who spent many 
years in studying in Egypt, and who was famil- 
iar with the astronomical theories of the Chal- 
deans and Egyptians, proclaimed to his disci- 
ples that the earth had a motion and revolved 
periodically around a great central fire, and this 
theory met with the warmest approbation of 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 13 

some other Greek philosophers, who also be- 
lieved in two motions of the earth, an annual 
and daily, and claimed that the heavens only 
appeared to move because the earth turned on 
its axis with such rapidity. 

But this belief was rejected with scorn by 
Ptolemy, who said that it was impossible to 
believe that the earth turned on its axis from 
west to east during twenty-four hours ; for if it 
were true, then bodies lighter than the earth 
and suspended in the air, would have an op- 
posite movement, and that it would thus be 
impossible for clouds or birds, or any object 
thrown in the air to go toward the east, as the 
earth would be constantly going before them 
and make it seem as if everything were going 
toward the west. And for two thousand years 
the world clung to the Ptolemaic theory, in part 
because it seemed reasonable and convincing, 
but chiefly because it had received the sanction 
of Aristotle, the greatest of the Greek philoso- 
phers, whose influence upon thought was so 
unlimited that even his most absurd theories of 
mechanics were received without question. 



14 GALILEO, 1564-1642. 

But in 1543 Nicholas Copernicus, a Prussian 
astronomer, published his great work "De Re- 
volutionibus " — concerning the revolutions — in 
which he entirely refuted the Ptolemaic theory, 
and asserted that the earth was not the centre 
of the universe, and that it had a daily rotation 
on its axis and an annual revolution around the 
sun, which two motions accounted for all the 
other phenomena of the heavens, and satisfac- 
torily explained all the hitherto unexplainable 
mysteries in regard to the motions of the heav- 
enly bodies. 

The opinions of Copernicus were received 
with disdain by the philosophers of the old 
school, and his work was derided as the wildest 
nonsense ; but the more thoughtful minds gave 
his writings careful attention, and came grad- 
ually to accept his incontrovertible arguments, 
and among these was Galileo, who found it im- 
possible to hold the Ptolemaic theory after be- 
coming familiar with the works of Copernicus. 

His conversion to the true theory was not, 
however, made publicly known at once, either 
because he felt that he had not yet sufficiently 



GALILEO, I 564-1642. IS 

studied it, or because he feared that the opposi- 
tion of his enemies might do the new system 
more harm than it would be in his power to 
overbalance. 

But In 1604 the scientific world was startled 
by the sudden appearance of a new star, whose 
splendor at once attracted the attention of all 
astronomers. Night after night its brilliant 
light, changing from orange to yellow, purple, 
red, and white successively, illumined the heav- 
ens with new glory, and records were searched 
and old treatises pored over in order to see how 
often similar appearances had been noticed 
before. 

Galileo studied the star with the greatest 
interest, and his lecture-rooms were crowded 
when it was announced that he would give a 
public explanation of the wonder ; but the crowds 
who had come to agree with old theories or 
idly speculate over ancient astronomical history, 
were rudely startled by Galileo's original views, 
which swept away many of the fondest illusions 
of the age, and proclaimed clearly a new and 
unwelcome advance in the study of the heavens. 



l6 GALILEO, I 564-1642. 

It was generally believed that the new star 
was a meteor having its origin in the atmos- 
phere, and that it was nearer the earth than the 
moon ; but Galileo claimed that this was impos- 
sible, and proved, by exact calculations from the 
situation and appearance, that the star must be 
placed among the most distant of the heavenly 
bodies, and that the belief in its motion around 
the earth was contrary to true theory of the 
earth's revolution around the sun. 

This view was received with scorn by the fol- 
lowers of Aristotle, who held that the sky was 
unchangeable, and that the stars were carried 
in hollow crystalline spheres around the earth, 
thus making it impossible to account for the 
new star in this manner. They also declared 
their opposition to the theory of the motion of 
the earth, and Galileo was called upon to defend 
the Copernican system. He did this with such 
zeal that the university was at once divided into 
two parties, one agreeing with the Aristotelians, 
and the other following Galileo and accepting 
the new doctrines with delight. The dispute 
went on for some years, and Galileo omitted no 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 17 



chance to proclaim his belief in the Copernican 
system, and to add new proofs to strengthen its 
hold upon the minds of others ; and in 1609 an 
event occurred which enabled him to completely 
vindicate the truth of his new belief, and to con- 
vince all but the most obstinate that it would be 
no longer possible to hold to the old theories. 
This was the invention of the telescope, the use 
of which revealed the most startling wonders 
in the heavens, and demonstrated the truth of 
Galileo's belief to the fullest extent. 

Previous to this astronomers had been obliged 
to depend entirely upon the naked eye for mak- 
ing all observations ; and although the world had 
advanced in almost every other way, in this re- 
spect the Italian star-gazer of the sixteenth 
century had no advantage over the Chaldean 
shepherds who, ages before, had studied the 
mysteries of the heavens during their lonely 
night-watches. But the telescope changed all 
this, and revolutionized the study of astronomy. 
It brought to light unsuspected possibilities for 
research, and laid bare the secrets that had 
eluded man from the earliest times. Not only 



GALILEO, I 564-1642. 



were the planets and stars that were already 
known brought nearer and rendered more fa- 
miliar by closer observation, but even the most 
distant of the heavenly bodies shone with a new 
glory, that was not diminished by the discovery 
that, farther still beyond their circles, other stars 
even yet more beautiful swept through their lim- 
itless courses, and that what had before seemed 
only empty space was in reality filled with 
vast systems of worlds, which waited only the 
proper moment to reveal themselves in all their 
bewildering splendor. 

It is claimed by some that Galileo's invention 
of the telescope was not strictly original, and 
that he only applied and improved upon an idea 
that had already been used to some extent in 
the manufacture of optical instruments. 

But, however this may be, it is certain that 
the first telescope which Galileo made and 
pointed to the heavens created the greatest 
wonder in the scientific world, and was consid- 
ered almost as much of a marvel as the discov- 
ery of a new world would have been. 

This first telescope, which was called Galileo's 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 19 

tube, aroused public curiosity to the greatest 
height, and Galileo's house was thronged with 
visitors eager to satisfy their curiosity ; the 
most extravagant and absurd stories were cir- 
culated, and all through Venice, where Galileo 
happened to be staying at the time, there was 
no talk of anything but the wonderful instru- 
ment which was thought to be possessed of al- 
most magical powers. The news spread rap- 
idly from place to place, and all the astronomers 
set themselves to making telescopes, though it 
was long before anyone could produce an in- 
strument equal in excellence to those made by 
Galileo. And so great was the excitement over 
the new invention, that small telescopes were 
sold in the streets as curiosities, and the observ- 
atories were besieged with people who gave 
the astronomers no peace until they satisfied 
their incredulous wonder. 

In the meantime Galileo ascended his tower 
night after night, and pointed his telescope 
toward the heavens which had so suddenly as- 
sumed such new and intense interest. And the 
results showed that, although he had given his 



20 GALILEO, 1564-1642. 

whole life to the study, he had really only just 
begun to learn anything of the marvels of crea- 
tion. One mystery after another was unfolded 
to his wondering gaze, and even the objects 
that had once seemed familiar to him now dis- 
closed such new characteristics as to appear 
almost strange. 

This was especially true of his observations 
on Jupiter, a planet which, from its great size 
and brilliant light, had always attracted the at- 
tention of astronomers. Regarded at first by 
mankind simply as a splendid star whose beauty 
added another glory to the sky, it was studied 
with unusual care, and even when later philoso- 
phers denied its stellar character, it was still an 
object of intense interest to astronomers, who 
looked upon it as a mysterious presence wan- 
dering among the familiar stars, awing them by 
its majesty, and yet as little understood as the 
flittings of the will-o'-the-wisp among the fire- 
flies in the meadow. And although its plane- 
tary character was fully established in the time 
of Galileo, the wonder in it had not yet ceased. 
Galileo brought it night after night under the 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 21 

range of the telescope, and was soon rewarded 
by the most startling discovery in astronomical 
science. 

He noticed, at first, that there seemed to be 
three new stars situated very near to Jupiter, 
and further observation led to the discovery of 
a fourth. Careful study of that part of the 
heavens soon led to the astonishing disclosure 
that these small stars revolved around Jupiter, 
in the same way that the moon revolved around 
the earth ; and Galileo, after verifying his theory 
by elaborate and continuous observations, an- 
nounced the undreamed-of fact that Jupiter was 
attended by four moons. 

This intelligence was received with undis- 
guised amazement by all classes. The friends 
of Galileo and the advocates of the Copernican 
system, at once joyfully accepted this new proof 
of the harmonious motions of the heavenly bod- 
ies, while his opponents were equally bitter in 
their denunciation, refusing to look through the 
telescope for fear it would convince them of their 
error, and, as usual, bringing forth the most ab- 
surd arguments in favor of their own obstinacy. 



22 GALILEO, 1564-1642. 

Galileo had named the satellites the Medi- 
c^ean stars in honor of his patron, Cosmo di 
Medici, and one antagonistic philosopher gravely 
denied the willingness of nature to give Jupiter 
four moons simply for the sake of immortalizing 
the name of Medici, and said that the whole 
thing was an idle dream. 

Another declared solemnly that he did not 
more surely know that he had a soul in his 
body, than that the moons were caused entirely 
by reflected rays of light, and claimed that Gal- 
ileo's "thirst for gold " had alone led him to 
such an announcement. 

And still another astronomer seriously dem- 
onstrated that it was contrary to the law of 
nature to have more than seven planets, and 
that therefore more than seven could not exist. 
He argued that there were seven windows 
given to animals in the domicile of the head, to 
admit the air to the rest of the body to warm 
and nourish it, and that likewise, in the heavens 
there were two favorable stars, Venus and Ju- 
piter ; two unfavorable, Mars and Saturn ; two 
luminaries, the sun and the moon; and Mer- 



GALILEO, 1564-1642. 23 

cury alone undecided and indifferent. Also, 
that there were but seven metals, seven days in 
the week, and innumerable similar phenomena 
to prove that there could only be seven planets ; 
summing up with the conclusion that the satel- 
lites were invisible to the naked eye, that they 
therefore could exercise no influence on the 
earth, that they were therefore useless, and 
therefore did not exist. 

To this Galileo only replied that, however 
weighty the reasons might be that no more 
than seven planets could exist, they scarcely 
seemed sufficient to destroy the new ones 
when actually seen, and went on observing 
Jupiter. 

His friends supported his theories as warmly 
as ever, and the controversy was kept up until 
the existence of the satellites was established 
beyond a doubt, when his enemies went to the 
other extreme and claimed that Galileo's obser- 
vations were most imperfect, as there were 
really twelve satellites instead of four ; and it 
was only when Jupiter moved to another part 
of the heavens, carrying his four moons with 



24 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

him, that they admitted that the original an- 
nouncement was correct. 

Galileo's observations of the moon also led 
to a fierce discussion, and philosophers again 
spent a great deal of time in arguing and deny- 
ing, with the usual results. 

From its nearness to the earth, and the in- 
teresting phenomena connected with the va- 
rious changes that it passed through every 
month, the moon had from the earliest times 
been an object of the greatest interest to man, 
who attributed mysterious power to its influ- 
ence, and placed it among the divinities. And 
it still held its subtle attraction long after the 
old religions had passed away, for with the ex- 
ception of the sun, it alone of all the heavenly 
bodies exercised an important influence in the 
concerns of daily life. Filling the heavens with 
its wondrous beauty long after the great god of 
day had set, it seemed like a beneficent spirit 
sent by some protecting power to guard the 
lonely watches of the night ; while to the travel- 
ler on desert or mountain or sea, its beams came 
with friendly assurance of help and companion- 



GALILEO, I 564-1642. 25 

ship in braving the unseen perils of the dark- 
ness. 

In the time of Galileo the popular belief con- 
cerning the moon was that it was a perfectly 
spherical body, with a surface as smooth and 
polished as a mirror, and that the dark parts of 
its surface were either the reflections of the 
forests and mountains of the earth, or caused 
by the interposition of opaque bodies floating 
between it and the sun, or, because of its 
nearness to the earth, the result of contact with 
certain terrestrial elements which marred its 
beauty and made it less pure than the bodies 
in the more remote heavens. 

But Galileo's observations led him to the 
belief that the moon resembled the earth in 
structure, and that its dark portions were the 
shadows reflected from mountains and other in- 
equalities in its surface ; while he also claimed 
that it was probable that there were continents 
and oceans distributed over the surface similar 
to those on the earth, and that the faint shadow 
which was attached to the crescent moon, and 
filled out that part of the surface unlighted di- 



26 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

rectly by the sun, was caused by the reflection 
of the earth's light, or earthshine. These theo- 
ries were at once attacked by his opponents, 
who said that Galileo took delight in ruining 
the fairest works of nature, and utterly denied 
the existence of mountains on the moon, as their 
presence there would destroy its spherical shape. 
Galileo replied that to conceive of the moon 
and the earth as perfectly spherical bodies 
would only detract from their use, in the plan of 
nature, for absolute smoothness and sphericity 
would make of the earth only a vast, unblessed 
desert, void of animals, of plants, and of men ; 
the abode of silence and inaction ; senseless, 
lifeless, soulless, and stripped of all those orna- 
ments which made it so beautiful. But this 
argument was derided by his enemies, who re- 
plied that the moon's surface was really smooth 
and unalterable in spite of all that Galileo could 
say, and that the parts which appeared hollow 
or sunken were in reality filled up with a crys- 
tal substance perfectly imperceptible to the 
senses, but still serving the purpose of giving 
to the moon her true spherical shape. 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 



Galileo agreed to accept the theory of a crys- 
tal substance filling all irregularities, provided 
the philosophers would allow him to raise crys- 
tal mountains ten times higher than those he 
had actually seen and measured, and this non- 
sense effectually put an end to the crystalline 
theory. 

In regard to Galileo's theory of earthshine 
his critics averred that it was untenable, because 
the earth was not a planet and did not revolve 
around the sun, or shine like the other planets, 
and ascribed the shadow to Venus or the fixed 
stars, or the rays of the sun shining through 
the moon. And thus the endless dispute went 
on, and all of Galileo's wonderful discoveries 
were received with scorn and unbelief by the 
enemies of progress, who bent all the powers 
of their minds to the refutation of the Coperni- 
can theory. But Galileo went on with his ob- 
servations undisturbed by this opposition, and 
constantly announced new wonders. 

He examined the Milky Way, and was the first 
to prove that its nebulous appearance was 
caused by the presence of myriads of stars, 



28 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

whose light reached to infinite distances beyond 
the system of the earth ; and although this the- 
ory was of course disputed, it was firmly estab- 
lished by repeated observation, and thus con- 
firmed beyond a doubt the conjecture of Py- 
thagoras that countless millions of stars circled 
continuously through their distant courses far 
beyond the vision of man. 

Galileo subjected all of the planets in turn to 
his scrutinizing gaze, and one discovery fol- 
lowed another with astounding rapidity, so that 
there never ceased to be a new marvel to won- 
der at. 

He detected the presence of Saturn's rings, 
although his glass was not strong enough to 
show him their real nature, and he supposed 
the planet to have two attendant stars ; and a 
month later he announced the discovery of the 
phases of Venus, deducing from this fact another 
proof of the Copernican system. He also ex- 
amined the fixed stars, and by careful compari- 
son of their light with that of the planets decided 
that they did not receive their light from the 
sun, and he added still another argument to the 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 29 

doctrine of Copernicus by the discovery of the 
spots on the sun and their motion across its disc. 

As early as 807 a.d. dark spots had been ob- 
served on the face of the sun, and for centuries 
after this phenomenon attracted the attention of 
astronomers. But all curiosity was satisfied by 
the supposition that the dark body was simply 
caused by the passage of Mercury or some other 
small object across the sun's surface. 

But Galileo claimed that the spots were in 
actual contact with the sun, and that they had a 
common and regular motion with which they 
revolved around the sun, which turned upon his 
axis once a month. 

Here was another argument for the Coperni- 
can theory, and in consequence the new expla- 
nation of sun spots was received with little favor 
by the followers of Aristotle. 

And thus in the midst of opposition and dis- 
couragement Galileo kept on his way, continu- 
ally adding to the sum of scientific knowledge, 
and unwearying in his efforts to place natural 
science upon a more reasonable and comprehen- 
sible plane than it had before reached. 



30 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

His observations included not only the phe- 
nomena of the heavens, but also those con- 
nected more intimatelv with the earth, and his 
essays extended over a great variety of subjects 
which had hitherto been treated only with igno- 
rance or indifferent success. 

The results of his work were published from 
time to time, and in 1632 the labor of his life 
was given to the world in the form of a book 
entitled, " The Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and 
Copernican Systems," in which were incorpo- 
rated all his views on natural science, and his 
arguments in favor of rejecting many of the old 
theories of the universe and accepting the 
new. 

And now the unpopularity which had always 
followed him found a new object for its ha- 
tred. 

The book was received with the most intense 
ill-will by Galileo's enemies, many of whom oc- 
cupied high positions in philosophical circles, 
and possessed an unbounded influence with the 
dignitaries of Church and State, and the " Dia- 
logue of the Systems " was made the means of 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 31 

bringing the quarrel between the old and new 
philosophies to an issue. 

The hatred of years had at last found its op- 
portunity, and Galileo was summoned to Rome 
to answer to the charge of heresy in teaching 
the doctrines of Copernicus, which were as- 
sumed by the Church to be in opposition to the 
revealed word of God. 

Galileo was seventy years old, and his life had 
been spent in the reverent study of the works 
of nature, but the conclusions he arrived at dif- 
fered from those accepted by the theologians of 
the day, and his long and faithful devotion to 
science, and all his splendid discoveries, were 
simply regarded by his enemies as the work of 
a man who had dared to dispute the holiest 
tenets of the Church, and to offer a scientific 
creed opposed to the sacred beliefs of the Aris- 
totelian philosophers. 

The Inquisition, which was then the judicial tri- 
bunal of the Roman Catholic Church, examined 
Galileo upon his religious and scientific views, 
and pronounced them impious and heretical, and 
called upon him to renounce and abjure the 



32 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

most cherished convictions of his soul, or suffer 
the penalty that attended any persistent opposi- 
tion to the Holy Office. 

The subject of Galileo's abjuration has always 
been a matter of dispute, some contending that 
it was extorted from him while undergoing tort- 
ure at the hands of the officers of the Inquisi- 
tion, and others claiming that the terms of abjura- 
tion were dictated by the inquisitors themselves, 
and are not to be considered as expressing the 
recantation of Galileo. 

But, however that may be, it is certain that an 
abjuration, that was considered sufficiently con- 
demning by his enemies, was sworn to by Gali- 
leo in the presence of the officers of the Inqui- 
sition, and that his recantation saved him from 
imprisonment, and perhaps death. 

The well-known anecdote that when Galileo 
rose from his knees after signing the abjuration, 
he stamped on the ground and whispered to 
one of his friends — " It [the world] does move, 
though " — is without foundation. Although 
copies of his abjuration were immediately circu- 
lated throughout Italy, and were ordered to be 



GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 33 



read in the universities, the Copernican system 
still kept its hold upon the minds of all advanced 
thinkers, and Galileo was still regarded as its 
most powerful advocate. 

The fact that his abjuration did not cost him 
the respect and admiration of his friends, is suf- 
ficient evidence that it was obtained under cir- 
cumstances that reflect little credit on the sup- 
porters of the Church, and admits the probability 
that, even in this terrible crisis, Galileo main- 
tained his character as an uncompromising ad- 
vocate of the new school of thought ; and his 
judges can only place his whole brave and con- 
sistent life against the questionable practices of 
the Inquisition, to give a balance largely in his 
favor. 

Galileo died in 1642, having been blind for 
five years before his death. 

The malice of his enemies followed him to the 
end, and he was denied the privilege of making 
a will, and of burial in consecrated ground. 

But this petty spite could not interfere with 
the sentence passed upon him by all the un- 
biased thinkers of his own and succeeding ages, 



34 GALILEO, 1 564-1642. 

that his life was one of noble devotion to his 
work, and that through his influence scientific 
inquiry was first led into the pure ways of 
reasonable thought, and the world of nature 
more fully and clearly revealed, and endowed 
with new and unimagined beauty. 



CHAPTER II. 

KEPLER AND THE PATHWAYS OF THE PLANETS, 
I57I-I635. 

The invention of the telescope prepared all 
minds for new wonders, and made astronomy 
the leading science of the day. The heavenly 
bodies were observed with a new interest, and 
their motions studied more intently ; for, while 
the Copernican system proved that the earth 
and other planets moved around the sun as a 
centre, it left many mysteries unexplained which 
could not be accounted for by the fact of the daily 
rotation of the earth or its annual revolution. 
And while Galileo was startling the world by 
his magnificent discoveries in the heavens, the 
German astronomer Kepler was revolving in 
his mind a theory of the universe which would 
explain some of these mysteries, and was des- 
tined to make his name as famous as that of his 
great contemporary. 



36 KEPLER, 1571-1635. 

The motions and nature of the heavenly bod- 
ies were questions that were puzzling the wisest 
heads, and many strange theories were ad- 
vanced to account for the apparent irregularities 
in the movements of the planets and their re- 
lation to the fixed stars. 

Tycho Brahe, the Danish astronomer, from 
his magnificent observatory, Uraniberg, had 
spent years in studying the order of planetary 
motion, and at his death left his observations 
recorded in a set of tables which he intrusted to 
the care of Kepler, his friend and pupil. Uran- 
iberg, the city of the heavens, was built on the 
Island of Huen, in the Baltic, and under the 
patronage of the King of Denmark had become 
the resort of many of the most earnest scientific 
students, who gladly availed themselves of the 
teaching of Tycho Brahe. The observatory 
was furnished with the most complete set of 
astronomical instruments in the world, and was 
famous for its facilities for studying the heav- 
ens. 

It was by means of these instruments, and by 
his great knowledge of mathematics, that Tycho 



KEPLER, 1571-1635. 37 

Brahe was able to make those accurate obser- 
vations which gave his tables a priceless value, 
and enabled Kepler to work out calculations 
that it would have been impossible to make 
without them. 

Unlike many great scientists, Kepler had 
shown no special liking for any particular study 
when a child, and he was led to the study of 
astronomy only because he was appointed pro- 
fessor of that science in the university of Gratz. 
But while preparing his lectures, he became 
so deeply interested in the subject that before 
long it entirely occupied his mind, and nothing 
else seemed of any importance as compared 
with it. 

Kepler possessed a very enthusiastic nature, 
and was always ready to listen to new theories, 
no matter how wild they might seem. He was 
among the first to rejoice over the splendid dis- 
coveries of Galileo, and was an ardent supporter 
of the Copernican system while it was yet being 
reviled by the authority of the Church and the 
disciples of Aristotle ; and his originality and 
enthusiasm made him capable of turning the 



38 KEPLER, 1571-1635. 

earnest work of Tycho Brahe to the very best 
account. 

The Copernican theory had been steadily 
gaining ground in the estimation of astrono- 
mers, and, as one after another gave up the old 
system, they ceased to speculate about the ap- 
parent movements of the sun and stars around 
the earth, and began to study the planets from 
a new point of view. 

The path which a planet takes in revolving 
around the sun is called its orbit, and astron- 
omers now became interested in the question 
of the size of the orbits and the rate of motion. 

The idea that there was always to be found 
a certain harmony throughout all the works of 
nature, swayed the minds of men as much in 
the sixteenth century as it had done in the dawn 
of scientific thought, and no sooner was a new 
theory advanced, or a new discovery made, than 
the question arose as to how it would harmon- 
ize with the truths already known, or how, by 
following out some suggestion it contained, still 
other discoveries might be made. 

Kepler possessed more than any of his con- 



KEPLER, 1571-1635. 39 

temporaries the gift of intuition, or the power of 
grasping a truth that has not been demonstrated 
by any known law of nature, and it is to this 
insight that he owed his success. He believed 
that the entire universe was governed by one 
great law or principle, and that there was a 
subtle relation existing between things that 
seemed to be utterly disconnected. All the 
great discoveries of science, all the wonderful 
operations of nature, every expression of beau- 
ty in the animal or vegetable world, and every 
useful invention of man, seemed alike to him to 
be controlled by some great harmonious prin- 
ciples that might be applied with equal appro- 
priateness to the turning of a water-wheel, or 
the rise of the tides, or the rushing of a comet 
through illimitable space. 

With this idea ruling his mind every new fact 
was at once made a basis for calculations that 
might lead to the discovery of the great secret 
law of the universe, and no toil was considered 
irksome that could help him on his way, for he 
believed that the relation existing between the 
different forces of nature was so strong that the 



40 KEPLER, 1 571-1635. 

discovery of the law of one would be the mas- 
ter-key that would unlock the whole mystery of 
creation. 

This belief, which had haunted the minds of 
philosophers of all ages, seemed to Kepler of in- 
finitely more importance than anything else, and 
the discovery of a new planet in the heavens 
meant to him not only a new wonder to be ad- 
mired and gazed at, but a new instance of the 
harmonious working of the order of creation. 

Pythagoras had claimed, two thousand years 
before, that he had discovered the world-secret, 
and that harmony, or proportion, was the law 
of the universe. He taught that the planets re- 
volved around a central fire, moving with an in- 
conceivable swiftness that caused them to be 
accompanied by mighty rushing sounds, but 
that the different velocities were so beautifully 
proportioned that the result was not mere noise, 
but the most exquisite music, which excelled in 
sweetness and power all earthly melodies. It 
was said that the reason that these harmonies 
were not heard by man was because they were 
unceasingly sounding in his ears from the mo- 



KEPLER, IS7I-I635. 41 

ment of birth, and that they would therefore be 
unnoticed by him. This notion was also held 
by many of the philosophers of the Middle 
Ages, and even at a much later day the astrol- 
ogers and seers claimed that the music of the 
spheres might be easily distinguished by the 
initiated. 

However absurd these theories may seem, it 
is nevertheless a fact that the love and study of 
the marvellous have in many cases led to the 
knowledge of some great truth of nature, and 
had it not been for Kepler's belief in the pos- 
sibility of finding the secret that had forever 
eluded mankind, he might never have been led 
on to the discoveries that made him famous. 

Calculations whose length and intricacy would 
have disheartened anyone else were cheerfully 
carried on by him for months and years, to be 
as cheerfully abandoned if found incorrect, and 
the unwearied and painstaking labor of a life- 
time would have been counted as nothing in 
comparison to the discovery of some hitherto 
unknown truth. 

The possession of Tycho Brahe's tables aided 



42 KEPLER, I57I-1635. 

him greatly in the work, for so accurate had 
been the observations of the Danish astrono- 
mer, and so reliable his deductions, that Kepler 
was able to depend upon them almost abso- 
lutely, and to decide that in every case his the- 
ories must be rejected if they did not agree with 
the statements in the tables. 

Having always in mind the discovery of the 
law of harmony that governed the universe, 
Kepler bent the whole energies of his mind to 
the study of the number of the planets, their 
motions, and the sizes of their orbits. It seemed 
to him that there must be some proportion be- 
tween the sizes of the orbits, and he made many 
calculations to prove the truth of this conjecture. 
There were at that time but five planets known, 
and after having failed to prove any relation 
existing between the sizes of their orbits, Kep- 
ler imagined a new planet between Venus and 
Mercury, and another between Mars and Jupi- 
ter, and then made a new calculation to see if 
he could discover the proportion he was looking 
for; but he failed also here, and, after many 
months spent in fruitless toil, he was obliged 



KEPLER, I57I-I63S. 43 

to give up the work without having proved that 
there was any regular rate of increase between 
the orbits of the planets nearest the sun and 
those farthest from it. 

In all his calculations Kepler started from the 
old theories of the relations which were sup- 
posed to exist between the different solid and 
plane figures, and when he began the study of 
the planets' orbits he pursued the same plan. 

Up to this time the belief had always been 
that the motions of the heavenly bodies were 
described in circles. The circle, which was con- 
sidered the most beautiful of all curves, had 
always had a mystic meaning for the old phi- 
losophers, and was always associated in some 
manner with their religious belief. It was the 
emblem of eternity, and was carved on the 
tombs of kings, and inscribed in sacred books, 
and many things in nature seemed to mark it 
with special significance. The arch of the 
heavens stretching from earth to earth again, 
the cycle of the seasons, the expansion of the 
moon, which was worshipped as a deity, from 
the crescent form to the perfectly rounded fig- 



44 KEPLER, 1571-1635. 

ure, the circular disc of the sun, and many other 
things all enveloped the circle with a sacred 
meaning which had by no means lost its power 
when astronomy was invested with new interest 
by the genius of Copernicus. 

And when it was conceded that the planets 
revolved around the sun it w r as at once assumed 
that their orbits were circular, for this shape 
alone would enable them to harmonize with the 
popular belief in regard to the mystic impor- 
tance of the circle. 

Kepler, starting with this idea, tried in vain 
to account for the irregularities of the planets' 
motions which had puzzled other astronomers. 
If the planets moved in circles about the sun, 
each always taking the same time for a revolu- 
tion and moving at a perfectly regular rate, 
then, by knowing their positions at any one time 
and the rate at which they were moving, it would 
be easy for an astronomer to calculate where 
they would be at any other time. 

But this was found not to be the case. Mars 
was the planet most convenient for making ob- 
servations upon, and Kepler made this planet 



KEPLER, 1571-1635. 45 

the subject of careful study for years, in order to 
determine the reason for its irregularity of mo- 
tion. Mars, travelling round the sun in a cir- 
cular orbit should reach a certain point on a cer- 
tain date, and because this did not happen the 
astronomers were sorely puzzled and invented 
many ingenious reasons to account for it. 

Kepler made nineteen different theories to 
explain the irregularity of the motion of the 
planets, but none of them could be considered 
entirely satisfactory. Each theory was made 
the subject of the most careful calculation, but 
all failed, and planetary motion remained as 
great a mystery as ever. 

At last Kepler was forced to think that possi- 
bly the planets did not move in circular orbits, 
although the circle was the most beautiful of 
curves, and he began to imagine the orbits to 
be of a different shape than had hitherto been 
supposed. The careful study that he had made 
of the orbit of Mars seemed to show that it was 
of an oval form, and as the ellipse was the sim- 
plest form of oval, Kepler chose this curve as a 
basis for new calculations. 



46 KEPLER, IS7I-I635. 

He had already become convinced, from his 
study of the earth's motion, that the planets did 
not move in their orbits at a regular rate of mo- 
tion, but that they moved faster when they were 
nearer the sun and slower when farther from it ; 
this in itself was a most important discovery. 

On applying this rule to calculate the motion 
of Mars, Kepler found, to his surprise and de- 
light, that when its orbit was taken to be an 
ellipse the planet would reach any point in its 
path just at the moment calculated, but that 
this would not be so if any other form of orbit 
were assumed. This was also found to be the 
case with the other planets. 

These two great discoveries startled the world 
by their originality, and placed Kepler among 
the greatest astronomers of the day. Hitherto 
his theories had been regarded rather indiffer- 
ently, as his contemporaries thought him always 
too eager to run after new ideas, and his method 
of starting a new hypothesis and making one 
intricate calculation after another to test it, did 
not correspond with their more sober way of 
proceeding. 



KEPLER, IS7I-1635. 47 

But Kepler kept on in his own manner of 
working, and continued his study of the planets' 
orbits. He was still desirous of proving his old 
theory of some proportion existing between 
them, and after many months of unremitting toil 
he was at length rewarded by the discovery of 
a law which at once established a most beauti- 
ful harmony in the solar system ; for, although 
he had failed to find any relation existing be- 
tween the sizes of the orbits, he now found that 
there was a very direct and beautiful propor- 
tion between the times of the revolutions of the 
planets and their distances from the sun, and 
that one, knowing the distance of any one planet 
from the sun and the time it occupied in its rev- 
olution, could calculate the distance of any other 
planet whose period was given, or the period 
of any planet whose distance was known. 

These three great discoveries — the shape of 
the planets' orbits, the rate of their motion, and 
the relation existing between their distances and 
periods of revolution — are called Kepler's Laws, 
and were the basis for all astronomical calcula- 
tions from that time. Their discovery was of 



48 KEPLER, 1571-1635. 

incalculable value to astronomers, and they con- 
tained, besides, the first proof of the ancient be- 
lief in the harmony that prevailed throughout 
the universe. 

The thought of the old philosophers was 
found to be no dream, but a reality as beautiful 
as the conception that raised the walls of cities 
by the power of music or changed the loved of 
the gods to constellations, whose solemn mo- 
tion through the heavens possessed infinite 
power over the destinies of mankind ; and 
although the great discoverer of these laws 
lived a life of the greatest hardship and died 
in extreme poverty, he is yet to be envied as 
one who realized L all the hopes of his life and 
saw his greatest wish brought to a satisfying 
completion. 




SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 



CHAPTER III. 

NEWTON AND THE FINDING OF THE WORLD 
SECRET, 1642-1727. 

From the time that men first began to specu- 
late about the earth, one of the principal ques- 
tions was how it was held in its position in the 
universe, and the ancients had many curious 
theories regarding this subject. 

One of the oldest beliefs was that the earth 
was supported by Atlas, the Titan, who had re- 
belled against the authority of the gods and was 
punished by being made to stand in the centre 
of the Western Ocean and bear the world on 
his shoulders. 

Still another theory was that the earth rested 
on the back of an enormous tortoise ; and a 
third belief, which was held by some of the East- 
ern nations, was that the world was carried by 
a large whale, whose sudden movements caused 
earthquakes and other such calamities. Another 



50 NEWTON, 1642-1727. 

philosopher declared that the world floated in 
the ocean like an egg, the half that was above 
the water being the part that was inhabited. 

But these different speculations failed to sat- 
isfy even the minds of the early students of nat- 
ure, and as time passed and scientific knowledge 
increased, it was found necessary to account in 
some other way for the earth's support. 

The establishment of the Copernican system 
made the problem all the more perplexing, as it 
was more difficult to imagine a support for a 
world that was whirling through space than for 
one at rest, and after the discovery of Kepler's 
laws the subject became more interesting than 
ever, and received a larger share of attention. 

Kepler himself had suggested that the mo- 
tion of the planets might be caused by spokes 
radiating from the sun and pushing the planets 
with them as they rotated. And absurd as this 
theory seems, Kepler spent considerable time in 
trying to verify it, and it was regarded as highly 
plausible by many other astronomers. 

Descartes, the great French philosopher, in- 
vented the theory that all space was filled with 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 51 

air, in which there were innumerable whirl- 
pools and vortices. One great vortex was sup- 
posed to exist around the sun, which carried 
the planets around, and just as the centre of a 
whirlpool in a river revolves more rapidly than 
its outer circles, so those planets near the sun 
would be carried around faster than those 
farther away. This theory accounted for the 
movement of the moons around the planets by' 
supposing that they were carried by smaller 
vortices around their individual centres, while 
the elliptical figure of the orbits was explained 
by imagining the planets pushing one another a 
little out of a circular path. 

But although the name of Descartes was cel- 
ebrated enough to cause his theory to be re- 
ceived with great respect, and although it was 
supported by some of the most eminent scien- 
tific men, it was never fully accepted, as it was 
thought impossible that nature, whose known 
laws were so simple and harmonious, should 
have so blundered in describing the orbits of 
the planets as to make it possible for them to 
push one another out of their paths. 



52 NEWTON, 1642-1727. 

Those philosophers who combined scientific 
experiment with a belief in astrology and the 
supernatural, still held the old belief of the crys- 
tal spheres in which the planets were borne 
around, and which had a mystic relation to the 
ten heavens and the atmospheres of air and fire ; 
while a more common and simpler theory, which 
was admitted by some of the most learned men, 
was that each planet was carried through its or- 
bit by an angel. 

But the sixteenth century was a time of earn- 
est thought, and of great men whose achieve- 
ments had already made it famous in the his- 
tory of science, and it was felt that whatever 
problem might vex the human mind would be 
solved at last, if painstaking labor and devotion 
to knowledge were of any avail. 

The Copernican system had set the current 
of speculation in new directions, and on the day 
of the death of Galileo, its most famous support- 
er, there was born in Woolsthorp, Lincolnshire, 
England, a child whose name now stands as 
the greatest in the history of science, and whose 
work it was to perfect the great theory and 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 53 

prove its truth by means of the most splendid 
discovery that the world has ever known. 

This was Isaac Newton, the descendant of a 
line of English farmers, who passed the un- 
eventful years of his boyhood in a quiet country 
home, whose humdrum life gave no hint of the 
brilliant future in store for him. 

A mile from his home was the little hamlet of 
Stoke, where he attended day school, and where 
he learned to read and write ; and with his first 
knowledge of books, he displayed also that love 
of mechanics which showed even at that early 
age the bent of his mind. He was always mak- 
ing little models of machines, finding hints for 
them in his plays, and in the suggestions of the 
world of nature with which he was so early famil- 
iar; and the little water-clocks and sun-dials 
which he made served a still greater purpose 
than an hours amusement, for they developed a 
sense of observation and accurate reasoning 
which were of the greatest service later on. 

When he was twelve years old he entered the 
grammar school at Grantham, but attracted no 
attention for any especial talent, and had it not 



54 NEWTON, 1 642- 1 727. 

been for the books which he read at home, his 
school life might have passed without leaving 
any particular mark upon his character. 

But it was during this period that Newton 
was attracted by some works on chemistry, al- 
chemy, and magnetism, and the reading of these 
books made an impression upon his mind which 
was never lost, and which went far toward de- 
termining his career. 

From this time a new world was opened to 
the thoughtful lad who, as he wandered over 
the meadows around his home, or through the 
pleasant English lanes, puzzled his head over 
the questions that had occupied the gravest 
thinkers of all ages, and wondered if ever the 
answers would be reached. 

Newton entered Trinity College, Cambridge, 
in 1 66 1, and almost immediately attracted the 
attention of his teachers by his extraordinary 
talent for mathematics. Subjects which his fel- 
low-students found most difficult he grasped with 
apparent ease, and he soon became known as 
one from whom great achievements might be 
expected. And this expectation was not disap- 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 55 

pointed, for before leaving college Newton gave 
proof of the originality of his mind by making 
certain discoveries in mathematics which at once 
attracted the attention of scientific men, and 
promised a future of renown. 

It was in the same year that he left college — 
1665 — that Newton conceived the great idea 
that won him eternal fame, and, strange as it 
may seem, this idea was something quite apart 
from the studies in mathematics and light which 
had hitherto occupied his mind. 

The great question of the motion of the earth 
was ever before men's minds, and Newton's ex- 
periments in light and his mathematical discov- 
eries still left room for thoughts of the problem 
that had not yet been solved by ancient or 
modern philosophers, although from time to 
time some hint of the meaning had been given. 
The old Greeks had claimed that all motion in 
the universe was caused by the action of two 
forces which they called love and hate, and the al- 
chemists had taught that all nature was pervaded 
by a subtle power which could not only change 
base metals to gold and give man an infinite ex- 



56 NEWTON, 1642-1727. 

istence on the earth, but also held sway over 
the remotest regions of space, and bound the 
stars and planets in its mystic rule. 

Newton's early studies had made him familiar 
with the older theories, and also with the laws 
of chemistry, which demonstrated the close re- 
lation which existed between different forms of 
matter. Kepler's laws exactly described the 
motions of the heavenly bodies which Galileo's 
telescope had first proven, but the question still 
remained — what gave the planets their motion, 
and carried them around the sun — and Newton, 
in his twenty-fourth year, gave evidence of the 
masterly powers of his mind by offering an 
explanation so clear and yet so simple as 
to perfectly harmonize with the known laws 
of nature, and place its probability beyond a 
doubt. 

Experiments had shown that magnetism, or 
the power of attraction, existed between certain 
bodies, but the nature and power of this force 
were quite unknown. The ancients were con- 
tent to say that certain bodies had a breath, or 
life, which attracted other bodies, and so let the 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 57 

mysterious power alone ; and in later times, 
while it was known that this power of attraction 
existed in a far greater degree than had formerly 
been supposed, it was still an almost unknown 
subject. Kepler and other astronomers even 
went so far as to say that the planets attracted 
one another, but how great this attraction was 
and what result it would have were not demon- 
strated. 

Still the subject was one of intense interest to 
philosophers, and was ever present in their 
thoughts, and as the smallest incident often 
leads to great results, so in the case of Newton, 
the simple circumstance of an apple falling 
from a tree in the garden in which he was sitting, 
suggested a train of thought which finally led 
to the discovery of the great law which holds 
the planets in their courses and governs the re- 
motest stars. 

It was an accepted fact in philosophy, that all 
objects on the earth were held there by magne- 
tism, or the force of attraction, and that in fact 
the earth was a great magnet which held all 
things upon it in their places, and kept them 



58 NEWTON, 1642-1727. 

from flying off* into space, just as surely as the 
loadstone attracted steel. 

The fall of the apple from the tree led New- 
ton to the thought that the magnetic power of 
the earth must also extend to things beyond its 
surface, and not in actual contact with it, and 
this suggested the still greater idea that, if the 
earth had any attractive power at all, this power 
must be felt to the farthest limit of the solar 
system, though in a much less degree. Newton 
at once perceived that if this were true the 
earth would exert an attraction over the moon, 
and he immediately undertook to see if this 
were so. 

Ever since the establishment of the Coperni- 
can system, astronomers had been trying to find 
out what power kept the moon revolving around 
the earth ; for it was evident that, according to 
the laws of motion, the moon would fly off into 
space were it not for the action of some power- 
ful but unknown force. 

Newton decided that whatever this power 
was, it must also exist between Jupiter and his 
moons in order to agree with the harmonious 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 59 

working of the universe, and he therefore made 
a calculation which proved that Jupiter's moons 
revolved around him and were kept in their orbits 
by the same power which the earth exerted over 
all objects on and near it, and that this power 
was greater or less according to the distance of 
the satellite from the planet ; or that Jupiter ex- 
erted a certain power over the nearest moon, 
less power over the next in order, and so on. 
This being established, it was an easy matter 
to determine if the earth kept her moon in place 
in the same way. But the most accurate cal- 
culations failed to prove the truth of the theory, 
and Newton was obliged to own to himself 
that his reasoning had been at fault. He there- 
fore said nothing of his hope or disappointment, 
resolving to keep both secret until time should 
have given better opportunities for a study of 
the problem. 

Ten years afterward a French mathematician 
announced that the accepted theory of the moon's 
distance from the earth was incorrect, and that 
the moon was in reality farther from the earth 
than had been supposed. This discovery at 



60 NEWTON, 1 642- 1 727. 

once led Newton back to his old theory in re- 
gard to the attractive power of the earth, for, 
since the degree of attraction depended upon 
the distance, he saw that his former hope might 
still be realized. He therefore began another 
calculation based upon the new value of the 
moon's distance, and so great was his joy on 
finding that the numbers were coming out as 
he wished, that his excitement prevented him 
from finishing the calculation, and he had to ask 
the aid of a friend. This success was imme- 
diately followed up by calculations on the satel- 
lites of Saturn, and the same result was obtained. 
Newton then extended his observations to the 
revolution of the planets around the sun, and to 
the motion of comets ; and finally, after innumer- 
able experiments and calculations, gave to the 
world his great law of attraction, viz., that 
every particle of matter in the universe attracts 
every other particle with a force depending upon 
the weight and the distance — a body twice as 
heavy as another body exerting twice the force, 
and a body at twice the distance exerting one- 
fourth the force. 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 6l 

This law, which is generally known as the 
law of gravitation, is considered the greatest dis- 
covery ever made by the human mind. 

Not only did it solve the question of the 
means by which the planets were carried around 
the sun, but it proved that the planets had this 
motion simply because of their mutual attrac- 
tion, and the attraction of the sun ; and that the 
whole universe was governed by the same law, 
which kept the planets in their orbits, governed 
the movement of comets, and controlled the 
entire mechanism of the heavens. 

Newton also deduced from this law the cor- 
rect figure of the earth, proving that gravitation, 
which caused the earth to rotate on its axis, 
would also give it a spheroidal shape, and not 
make it the perfect sphere which it had been 
supposed to be ; the simple experiment of a 
circular elastic hoop made to rotate around 
a fixed axis being sufficient to prove that a ro- 
tating body always tends to assume a sphe- 
roidal form, and to be flattened at its poles in 
proportion to the rapidity of movement. And 
although at this time there was no means of 



62 NEWTON, 1642-1727. 

finding out the figure of the earth by actual 
measurement, later on it was proven by con- 
clusive experiment that Newton's theory in re- 
gard to it was so correct as to approach very 
nearly to the actual amount of oblateness. 

Newton also proved that tides were caused 
by the attraction exerted by the sun and moon 
upon the earth, the moon exerting much more 
force than the sun, because of its nearness to 
the earth. When the sun and moon are both 
on the same side of the earth their force is 
united, and they draw the water away from the 
earth toward them, and the earth away from 
the water at the point directly opposite ; and 
when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of 
the earth the same thing happens ; so that at 
these times — at new and full moon — the highest 
tides occur ; the lowest tides occurring when 
the sun and moon are at right angles, for then 
their forces do not act together, one drawing 
in one line and the other in a line perpen- 
dicular to it, so that much of the attraction is 
lost. 

These and many other phenomena were ex- 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 63 

plained by Newton as having their origin in 
the attraction of gravitation, and the results of 
his investigations, together with his work on 
other subjects, were finally summed up in his 
great work called the " Principia, ,, which was 
published in 1687, the cost of the printing being 
born by Halley, the astronomer, as Newton 
himself could not afford the expense. 

Although it might have been supposed that 
the grand, yet simple, principles laid down in 
the " Principia " would appeal to every scientific 
mind, yet such was not the case, and Newton had 
to suffer from that misapprehension and preju- 
dice which fall to the lot of every original thinker. 
But few people were capable of understanding 
the new ways of reasoning which Newton in- 
troduced, and some of the most celebrated as- 
tronomers of the day derided the conclusions 
as absurd and false. Books were written to 
prove that the phenomena of the heavens could 
be explained on entirely different principles 
from those laid down in the " Principia/' and 
it was even said that the Newtonian philosophy 
was simply another form of the old superstition 



64 NEWTON, 1642-1727. 

of the ancients, who believed in the presence 
of mysterious agents, working in undiscover- 
able ways, and holding all the universe in 
their subtle power. But the new thought made 
its way surely, if slowly, and during the next 
century was accepted by the whole world of 
science. 

The mystery which had baffled the ages was 
unfolded at last, and the old dreams of the 
" world-secret," the faith of Copernicus, the vis- 
ion of Galileo, and the inspiration of Kepler, 
were triumphantly shown to have been, not 
idle play, but divine leadings toward the dis- 
covery of the greatest truth of nature that has 
ever been revealed to man. 

What this mysterious power is which binds 
the universe together in one harmonious whole, 
we do not know. We can only see its work- 
ings, and define its results, and the rest is un- 
known. 

Nature holds her grandest secrets close, and 
even Newton, her greatest interpreter, after a 
long life of research, could only sum up his ex- 
perience in these significant words : " I have 



NEWTON, 1642-1727. 65 

been but as a child playing on the sea-shore ; 

now finding some pebble rather more polished, 

and now some shell more beautifully variegated 

than another, while the immense ocean of truth 

extended before me unexplored/' 
5 



CHAPTER IV. 

FRANKLIN AND THE IDENTITY OF LIGHTNING AND 
ELECTRICITY, I Jo6- I JgO. 

Among all the subjects ever studied by sci- 
entific men none have been found more inter- 
esting than electricity, although for centuries 
almost nothing was known about it, and even 
now our knowledge of its nature and power is 
very limited. 

But the very mystery that has always sur- 
rounded it has given it an enduring interest, 
and from time to time there have been certain 
philosophers whose experiments and discover- 
ies in this subject alone would have been suffi- 
cient to place their names high on the roll of 
scientific fame. 

Dr. Gilbert, an English physician, published 
a book in the year 1600, hi which he gave all 
the facts that were then known about magnet- 
ism and electricity, and laid down some general 




3BNJAMIN FRANKLIN. 



FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 67 

laws in regard to them. Previous to this,. am- 
ber, jet, and a few other substances were sup- 
posed to be the only bodies that would attract 
other bodies to them when rubbed, but Gil- 
bert's investigations showed that this property 
was common to many other things, and gave a 
list of such substances as possessed it. 

A half century later than this, the first elec- 
trical machine was made by Otto von Guericke, 
a German philosopher. This machine consisted 
of a sphere of sulphur — one of the substances 
which Gilbert described as having the power 
of attracting light bodies when rubbed ; the 
sphere was made to rotate around an axle, and 
with this simple apparatus Guericke's experi- 
ments were carried on. 

In using this machine Guericke first noticed 
the electric spark, which was so feeble, however, 
owing to the small power of the sulphur, that it 
could only be seen in the dark ; also, by placing 
his ear quite close to the sulphur, he was able to 
hear the sound which always accompanies the 
spark. Guericke also noticed that the sulphur 
ball, when rubbed, would at first attract light 



68 FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 

substances and afterward repel them, although 
he did not know the reason of this. 

Later on, Hawkesbee found that amber or 
glass rubbed with flannel would produce light, 
and that the same result would follow if two 
lumps of sugar were rubbed together ; and that 
many other substances had the same property. 

Afterward it was discovered that all electrical 
substances, i.e., bodies which attract light sub- 
stances when rubbed, will also become lumin- 
ous by friction. This was the first important 
general law discovered by experiments in elec- 
tricity. 

In the eighteenth century the English scient- 
ist, Stephen Gray, found that electricity would 
pass from one body to another, though the 
same experiments proved that this was not 
always the case, and that in fact certain bod- 
ies, called conductors, would receive electricity 
from other bodies, while other substances, 
called non-conductors, would not receive it. 
Gray also established the conducting power of 
fluids, and of the human body. 

These were discoveries of vast importance, 



FRANKLIN, 1706-I79O. 69 

and showed, as nothing else could have done, 
the great advance in science from the days of 
the old Greeks, who thought that the only elec- 
trical bodies they knew owed their power to a 
breath, which could no more be transferred to 
another substance than the lily could give its 
perfume to the rose. Many of the practical 
uses of electricity, among them the electric tel- 
egraph, are based upon this discovery of Gray, 
Du Fay, a French scientist who was induced 
to study the subject by becoming interested in 
Gray's writings, also made one of the greatest 
discoveries in electricity. Guericke's observa- 
tion that electrical substances would at first at- 
tract and then repel light substances, was made 
a subject of experiment by Du Fay, who was fi- 
nally led to the astonishing discovery that there 
were two kinds of electricity : one kind — such as 
is developed by rubbing glass with silk — which 
he called vitreous electricity, and the other — 
such as is developed by rubbing sealing-wax with 
flannel — which he called resinous electricity, 
and that the two kinds always attract each 
other ; while, on the contrary, a body charged 



70 FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 

with vitreous electricity would repel another 
body charged also with that kind, and the same 
would be true of bodies charged with resinous 
electricity. 

One of the most important discoveries in 
the history of the science followed soon after, 
namely, that the two kinds of electricity existed 
in all electrical bodies, and that the rubbing sim- 
ply separated them, and that one kind was 
never produced without the other. 

To this period also belongs the discovery of the 
Ley den jar, an electrical instrument in which large 
quantities of electricity may be stored up and 
kept ; a metal coating on the inside of the jar be- 
ing charged with one kind of electricity, which is 
kept from escaping by the attraction of the oppo- 
site electricity on the outer coating of the jar, the 
two being separated by the non-conducting jar 
itself. When the two coatings are connected by 
a conductor the electricities rush together and 
the jar is discharged. While experimenting with 
this instrument a Dutch scientist experienced 
the electric shock, a sensation which caused him 
considerable alarm, for although it had been 
known from the time of the ancients that the 



FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 7 1 

torpedo could transmit a powerful shock to the 
human body, it was supposed that the power 
belonged to that animal alone, and the discov- 
ery that this sensation could be produced by an 
electrical machine made a great impression on 
the public mind. The Dutch experimenter de- 
clared he would not undergo the experience 
again for the crown of France ; but after the 
first fear had passed away and subsequent ex- 
periments had given the operator greater con- 
trol over the machine, it became quite the fash- 
ion for people to take an electric shock, just for 
the novelty of the thing, and the Leyden jar 
became as popular a plaything as the first tele- 
scopes and microscopes had been. 

Still another great discovery in electricity 
was made in the eighteenth century, by Benja- 
min Franklin, whose work for science is none 
the less interesting from the fact that he was 
distinguished in many other ways. 

Franklin was born in Boston, in 1706, and 
was the tenth son of an English mechanic who 
had settled in America, and followed the busi- 
ness of a soap-boiler and tallow-chandler. The 



72 FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 

father was a man of worth and of strong religi- 
ous principles, and from the old fashion of giv- 
ing a tenth of everything to the church as 
tithes, intended to devote Benjamin to the min- 
istry. 

But poverty compelled him to give up this 
idea, and at ten years of age Benjamin was 
taken from school and made to assist his father 
in boiling soap and making candles. This bus- 
iness seemed tiresome to the boy, who was of 
an ambitious turn of mind, and besides had his 
head filled with romantic ideas about the glory 
and charm of a life at sea, and would have 
liked nothing better than to run away and be- 
come a pirate or buccaneer, had chance offered ; 
but for all that, he did well the small duties that 
were assigned him, it being a. part of his char- 
acter always to do thoroughly what he set 
about ; and after two years at soap-boiling he 
left his father's shop, and became an apprentice 
to an older brother who was a printer in the 
same town. 

Here his work was more congenial, for he 
had an opportunity of reading more books than 



FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 73 

he had ever had access to before, and reading 
had always been one of his greatest pleasures ; 
and being fond of books, the making of books 
seemed to him much more interesting than any 
other trade. He set himself to learning the 
printers calling with a good will, and very soon 
became a very creditable apprentice. His 
young fellow-workmen took a kindly interest in 
the boy who was among the youngest of their 
number, and seeing his fondness for reading, 
lent him all the books they owned ; and as Ben- 
jamin also in time made acquaintance with the 
various booksellers with whom his brother had 
dealings, he was able sometimes to borrow 
books from them, often sitting up all night to 
read a book which had to be returned in the 
morning. But yet his taste for reading did not 
entirely destroy his inclination toward a life of 
adventure, and his predilection for pirates was 
as great as ever, though by this time he had 
given up the idea of running away to sea in a 
ship which floated a black flag ; and when it 
became noised about that Blackbeard, one of 
the most notorious pirates of the day, had been 



74 FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 

captured, Franklin's imagination was imme- 
diately excited by the event, and he at once set 
about the composition of a poem of which Black- 
beard was the hero, and in which he gave his 
fancy great freedom, and mixed up bold meta- 
phors and bad rhymes to an appalling degree. 
This production, together with another one 
celebrating a shipwreck which had just oc- 
curred, was printed and sold about the streets 
of Boston by the young author, who was im- 
mensely flattered at seeing his verses so eagerly 
seized by the public, and conceived the idea of 
leaving the printing office and turning poet. 
But on being assured by his father that poets 
were generally beggars, and being confirmed 
in this belief by his reading, he gave up the 
idea of distinguishing himself in poetry, and 
turned his attention to prose. And as was his 
fashion, he set himself to the matter with all the 
seriousness of his nature, taking for his model 
the works of the best English writers, and 
studying them with the greatest care, first read- 
ing the articles, then thinking them over till he 
had the subject well in his mind, and finally 



FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 75 

writing down his impressions and comparing 
them with the original. And although this work 
at the time seemed to his family but the pas- 
time of a restless boy, yet it bore fruit long 
afterward, when the force and purity of Frank- 
lin's style, both in speaking and writing, were of 
incalculable value not only to himself but to his 
country. 

This course of study, together with the ad- 
vantage he received from the conversations that 
were carried on in his brother's shop, in which 
all the important questions of the day were 
discussed, led in time to another attempt at 
authorship, but this time Franklin acted in 
secret from fear of ridicule, and slipped his 
manuscript under the office door, where it 
was found the next morning by his brother, 
who read it aloud to his friends all uncon- 
scious that the author stood by trembling with 
suspense, lest his judgment should be unfavor- 
able. 

But the paper was well received, and printed 
in the newspaper which was published at the 
office, and from this time Franklin made several 



76 FRANKLIN, 1706-I79O. 

contributions to the same paper before the name 
of the author was found out. 

At this time Franklin was about sixteen years 
of age, and considering that he had not been 
at school since he was ten, and that all his 
chance for study had to be taken out of his few 
leisure hours, he was a tolerably well-informed 
lad. He was of a very practical turn of mind, 
and listened to all the discussions on political 
topics with a keen interest and many a sugges- 
tive thought of the remedies that might be ap- 
plied to existing evils. But his brother, who 
misunderstood the boy's nature, was not calcu- 
lated to develop his young charge, and as he 
had always exercised over him a petty tyranny 
that was most aggravating to the younger 
brother, the time came at last when Franklin 
decided that it would be better for them to 
part. 

He said nothing of his plans to anyone, know- 
ing full well that he would only meet with op- 
position, but selling some of his books to ob- 
tain money, he took passage on a sloop that 
sailed between Boston and New York, whither 



FRANKLIN, 1706-I79O. 77 

. f 

he had determined to go. He left home in the 
night, secretly, and so really ran away at last, 
though only to become a harmless printer in- 
stead of the daring buccaneer he had once im- 
agined himself. 

But on reaching New York, which at that 
time contained only one printing-office, Frank- 
lin failed to obtain work, and so pushed on to 
Philadelphia, where after many ups and downs 
he finally succeeded in getting the promise of a 
printing-office of his own, and recommendations 
to people in England, where it was necessary 
for him to go to buy the needful outfit. 

But Franklin found that the friend he had 
depended upon had failed him at the last mo- 
ment, and he reached London without any 
letters of recommendation and with very little 
money, and found it necessary to work at his 
trade in order to get the means to return. 

This experience, however, was not lost upon 
one who turned all the events in life to some 
use, and when after eighteen months in Eng- 
land Franklin returned to Philadelphia, he found 
himself possessed of the newest processes in 



78 FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 

1 

printing, besides having picked up much other 
useful information. 

Soon after his return to America Franklin 
started a debating society among his young 
friends, which was called the Junto, or Leather 
Apron Club, because every member was sup- 
posed to be a mechanic, and in this society the 
youn t g printer soon occupied a leading posi- 
tion. 

Here were discussed all the political ques- 
tions of the day, and also various philosophical 
subjects, and the interest that was then awak- 
ened in such discussions led to the most impor- 
tant results ; for much of the ease and straight- 
forwardness which distinguished Franklin as a 
political speaker later on, could be traced to the 
exciting and inspiring debates in the Junto 
Club, while many of the practical plans for the 
benefit of the public which were suggested by 
Franklin, owed their origin to the same source. 

The first circulating library in America was 
started by the Junto Club, and began with fifty 
subscribers, and all of Franklin's plans for im- 
proving the condition of the city were laid 



FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 79 

before his fellow-workmen in the Junto before 
being made public. 

These plans were so practical and of such un- 
doubted value, that before long Franklin's name 
was associated with every movement connected 
with the public life of the city, and the citizens 
of Philadelphia came to have such a high re- 
gard for the man who had so often proved their 
benefactor, that it was sufficient for them to 
know that Franklin approved of any plan to 
give it their heartiest support 

In this way it came about that the public ser- 
vice was raised to such a degree that Philadel- 
phia became a model city among the colonies. 

The circulating library was followed by the 
establishment of a night patrol for the protec- 
tion of the city, and which was supported by 
taxes on property ; then came the organization 
of the first fire brigade, which met with such 
success that in a short time most of the promi- 
nent citizens became members of it, every mem- 
ber pledging himself to furnish a certain number 
of the bags, buckets, and baskets which consti- 
tuted the working utensils of the company. 



80 FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 

Then came the founding of the American Phi- 
losophical Society in 1743, the headquarters 
of which were fixed in Philadelphia ; and a few 
years later the Junto Club started a movement 
which immediately became popular through the 
exertions of Franklin, and which resulted in the 
founding of the University of Pennsylvania. 

The first hospital built in Philadelphia was 
largely due to Franklin's influence, people re- 
fusing to subscribe to it until they heard that 
he considered it desirable. Franklin also first 
called attention to the streets of Philadelphia, 
which were at that time unpaved and generally 
in a filthy condition. He first succeeded in 
having a walk paved in one of the principal 
streets, and as it soon became splashed with 
mud from the road, suggested that the house- 
owners should each pay a small sum to have 
the pavement kept clean. But paving the 
streets, when once it was started, seemed so de- 
sirable a thing to the inhabitants, that in a very 
short time the whole city was rendered clean 
and comfortable by paved streets. Then some 
one suggested that the streets should also be 



FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 



lighted, and lamps were brought from London 
for that purpose, Franklin again showing his 
practical turn of mind by substituting square 
chimneys of four panes of glass for the original 
globes which became speedily dimmed by the 
smoke ; and this care for details and interest in 
the small concerns of life was also shown by the 
invention of the Franklin stove, which was a 
great advance over the wide, open, draughty 
chimneys which had hitherto been used for all 
household purposes, and by some wise sugges- 
tions about a cure for smoky chimneys. 

In fact, Franklin never considered that any 
matter which concerned the welfare and com- 
fort of his fellow-men was unimportant, and 
would set himself just as readily toward abating 
some perplexing household annoyance, as to 
solving a question in philosophy, claiming 
always that the aim of all knowledge should be 
the practical serving of the human race. 

In the troubles between the colonies and the 

mother-country which preceded the Revolution, 

Franklin showed the full powers of his mind, 

and was a tower of strength to the people. 
7 



82 FRANKLIN, 1706-I79O. 

Never weary of planning, advising, and work- 
ing, he was an example of firmness of purpose 
united to unceasing labor, and his courage and 
perseverance at this critical time were of ines- 
timable value. He was among the first to claim 
and insist upon the rights of the colonies, and 
declared that justice must be maintained if 
every law of man should be broken in the at- 
tempt. But, notwithstanding his bold stand at 
this time, Franklin's wise and temperate judg- 
ment did not allow him to be carried away by 
any of the enthusiasms which were at that time 
popular among the more excitable class of col- 
onists. He did not advocate separation from 
the mother-country if justice could be obtained 
without that step, and claimed that he was a 
loyal American only because he was a loyal 
Englishman. But when the crisis came, and 
England proposed to do as she pleased with 
her own, regardless of all principles of right 
and justice, and when the English Parliament 
voted money for forcing the colonies to submis- 
sion at the point of the sword, then Franklin, 
who had been in England during the prelimi- 



FRANKLIN, 1706-I79O. 83 

nary troubles, trying to arrange matters on a 
peaceful basis, at once declared that the time 
for entire independence had come, and that the 
question would never be settled until the Amer- 
ican colonies had become a separate nation. 
And all through the dangerous and dishearten- 
ing years of the Revolution, he was the firm 
friend and unwavering supporter of the strug- 
gling colonies. He was one of the signers of the 
Declaration of Independence, and a few months 
afterward was appointed Commissioner to the 
French court, where he remained during the 
war, and where his influence in behalf of his 
country proved of incalculable value. And 
when the struggle was over, and the United 
States took their place among the nations, the 
treaty of peace which acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of America, was signed by Franklin, 
who was the American representative. 

Franklin, on his return to America, was made 
Governor of Pennsylvania, and in less than two 
years afterward was appointed to take part in 
drafting the Constitution ; and although he was 
then an old man, he showed the same good 



84 FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 

judgment and vigor of thought which had al- 
ways made him such a valuable adviser in pub- 
lic matters. 

In his scientific career Franklin was not less 
illustrious than in his political life. The found- 
ing of the American Philosophical Society, 
which was in constant communication with the 
Royal Societies of London and Dublin, and of 
which he was the first secretary, led to a famil- 
iarity with the progress of science in Europe, 
and throughout his long and busy life he never 
failed to keep up his interest in the scientific 
pursuits which at that time received such an 
impetus. 

The discoveries of Gray and Du Fay in elec- 
tricity produced a great impression upon him, 
and his studies in the same department were 
followed with an absorbing interest. What this 
mysterious power called electricity was, became 
the question of the day, and scientific minds set 
resolutely to work to solve the question. 

Franklin's experiments in electricity were 
confined to the problems of finding out, if possi- 
ble, what electricity was, and its distribution 



FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 85 

throughout nature. Gray and Du Fay had 
shown that there were two kinds of electricity, 
which repelled and attracted each other mu- 
tually, and that the electric current could pass 
from one body to another. Franklin attempted 
to find out the reason for this attraction and 
repulsion, and to discover why there existed 
conductors and non-conductors, or why some 
bodies would allow the electricity to pass 
through them and others would not. 

After many careful and interesting experi- 
ments, he was led to the belief that electricity 
was not created or produced, either by friction 
or any other process whatsoever, but that it 
was present everywhere, and that every body 
contained some quantity of this mysterious 
force, though what its nature was and how 
great its power might be, no one could decide. 
Franklin reasoned that as all bodies were 
equally supplied with electricity, there would 
be a state of equilibrium which would show no 
signs of its existence unless it were in some- 
way disturbed, and that the electricity mani- 
fested itself only when something occurred to 



86 FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 

disturb the normal condition of the body, either 
by giving it more electricity or taking some 
away from it. 

Instead of the theory of two kinds of electric- 
ity, Franklin claimed that all the phenomena 
connected with the subject could be explained 
by supposing a body to contain more or less of 
electricity, and introduced the words positive 
and negative to illustrate the condition of a 
body containing more or less than its normal 
quantity, and suggested that the terms vitreous 
and resinous be supplanted by the words positive 
and negative, a body being electrified positively 
when it receives an addition of electricity, and 
negatively when some is taken from it ; and 
these are the expressions that are now gener- 
ally used in speaking of the different condi- 
tions. 

Franklin's greatest contribution to this de- 
partment of science, however, was the discovery 
that electricity and lightning are the same 
thing. The thought that this might be true 
was not strictly original with Franklin, as Gray 
and others had hinted it before, but he was the 



FRANKLIN, 1706-1790. 87 

first to make the experiment which proved their 
identity beyond a doubt. 

This discovery, which was destined to make 
the name of Franklin famous in the history of 
science, resulted from the simple experiment of 
drawing the lightning from the clouds by 
means of a silk kite, to which was attached a 
pointed wire — Franklin having demonstrated 
before this the power of points to attract elec- 
tricity. The experiment was tried in the open 
field during a heavy thunder-shower, Franklin 
and his son standing under an open shed which 
afforded them a shelter from the rain. Frank- 
lin at first noticed that the fibres of the kite 
string which he held in his hand were separat- 
ing, as in the passage of the electric current, 
and by means of a small metal key attached to 
the cord he obtained the electric spark and the 
shock, and charged a Leyden jar, as well as 
performing other electrical experiments. 

The experiment was thus a complete success 
and established the identity of electricity and 
lightning beyond the shadow of a doubt. And 
although, when Franklin's paper on the subject 



FRANKLIN, 1706-179O. 



was read to the Royal Society of London, the 
learned members greeted it with sneers and 
laughter, yet the scientists throughout the rest 
of Europe accepted its views with alacrity, and 
French, German, and Italian translations were 
eagerly sought for, and the name of the dis- 
coverer of this new secret of nature was spoken 
of everywhere with admiring praise. 

Franklin's practical mind could not rest until 
he had found some means of applying this 
great discovery to the benefit of mankind, and 
the lightning rods which were before long 
erected on many buildings were among the re- 
sults which followed his famous experiments ; 
and had it not been for the engrossing political 
cares which occupied his mind during the long 
period of his country's need, it is probable that 
he would have made other inventions which, if 
not anticipating those at present in use, would 
at least have proven of much practical benefit 
in applying the powers of electricity to the con- 
cerns of daily life. 

Next to the discovery of the law of gravita- 
tion, the discovery of the identity of lightning 



FRANKLIN, 1706-I79O. 89 

and electricity and its universality throughout 
nature, was perhaps the greatest truth of nature 
that had yet been grasped, and Franklin's work 
for science, though forming only an episode in 
his brilliant political career, was of such lasting 
importance as to place his name high on the 
list of the world's great discoverers. 

He died in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790. 



CHAPTER V. 

CHARLES LTNNiEUS AND THE STORY OF THE 
FLOWERS, I 707-I 778. 

In the days when all things in nature were 
symbols to man of some force for good or evil, 
trees and flowers played an important part in 
his belief, and the old poems of those times are 
full of allusions to certain plants which were 
supposed to typify some hidden power. And 
the effect of this belief was seen not only in the 
concerns of daily life, but in things that were held 
most solemn and sacred, and flowers were gath- 
ered and cherished not only for their beauty 
and fragrance, but because their presence was 
felt to be a bond between man and those 
strange secrets of nature which were to him 
such a great mystery. 

All the nations of antiquity shared this belief 
alike, and we find that flowers and fruits were 



CHARLES LINN/EUS, 1707-1778. 9 1 

constantly used in all religious ceremonials and 
in the decoration of the temples. Solomon's 
temple had doors and pillars of fir and cedar 
and olive wood, while around the walls were 
carved opening flowers and drooping palms ; 
the curving brim of its molten sea was wrought 
with lily-work, and the tops of the pillars were 
circled with golden pomegranates, while cher- 
ubim, carved of olive wood and covered with 
gold, stretched their mighty wings across the 
holy place until they met above the sacred ark ; 
and during their solemn festivals the priests, 
clad in the sacred robes the hems of which 
were wrought in blue and purple and scarlet 
pomegranates, and hung with golden bells, 
passed to and fro before the altar, waving 
boughs of palm and boughs of willow and 
sheaves of grain, and offered the first-fruits of 
the harvest in thanksgiving. 

On the pillars of temples in Chaldea and 
Egypt we find carved the lotos, the flower of 
the resurrection, and in the oldest religious song 
of the Hindoos we read that sheaves of grain 
were offered to the God above all gods, the 



92 CHARLES LINNAEUS," 1 707-1 778. 

Beautiful-winged, who upheld the spheres. In 
Persia, the king sat upon a golden throne under 
a canopy of grape-vines whose leaves were of 
gold and fruit of priceless gems, while the 
priests offered grain and fruits to Ormuzd, the 
Spiritual One, of whom Zoroaster — golden 
splendor — was the interpreter. In Greece the 
worship of nature was carried to a still greater 
extent. At the great religious festivals the 
altars were twined with roses, and every feast 
was deemed incomplete till the guests had 
been crowned with wreaths of flowers. In the 
spring there were special songs sung in honor 
of the awakening earth, and in the autumn, at 
the grape-harvest, a dirge was chanted for the 
falling leaves and dying flowers. 

And we find that the study of plants has in- 
terested mankind from the earliest times, and 
in the oldest histories are recorded the works of 
those who spent their lives in learning some- 
thing of the beauty and mystery of the vege- 
table world. 

Kings, philosophers, and priests alike devoted 
themselves to this study, and every country 



CHARLES LINN^US, 1707-1778. 93 

had its wise men, who sought good to the race 
and honor to the nation by the discovery of 
some secret of nature as shown in the laws of 
plant-life. 

At first these researches were carried on 
chiefly as an aid to the study of medicine, which 
was practised principally by the priests, who 
mixed with their discoveries many crude theo- 
ries of vegetable life, and the change of plants 
into animals. But later on, great attention was 
given to the subject by men who were inter- 
ested in knowledge of all kinds, and the priestly 
caste ceased to be alone the interpreters of the 
mysteries of the vegetable world. 

Aristotle, the greatest naturalist of antiquity, 
was familiar with the laws of plant-life, and his 
pupil, Theophrastus, wrote a history of plants 
in which he described five hundred kinds ; and 
three hundred years later was born Pliny (23 
a.d.), the great Roman naturalist, who devoted 
seventeen books of his history to botany. 

In these books Pliny gives an account of all 
the trees, shrubs, and plants that were then 
known, and describes their cultivation and their 



94 CHARLES LINN/EUS, 1707-1778. 

uses in medicine and the arts. The products of 
the East, incense, spices, gems, and perfumes, 
were all noted, and fruit-trees of all kinds, the 
sugar-cane, the vine and the different kinds of 
wine made from its purple clusters, flowers, 
herbs, vegetables, shrubs and trees of every 
kind, are described with great care, and their 
medicinal value noticed. 

But although the study of botany thus re- 
ceived the attention of the wise of all ages, it 
was long before any successful attempt was 
made by which plants could be arranged into 
different classes, and until this was done botany 
could never take its proper place among the 
sciences. 

Occasionally a naturalist would suggest some 
plan of classification, but it would be lacking in 
so many necessary particulars that it could only 
fail ; to be followed by another that would also 
fail, and so on, until at last the great Swedish 
naturalist, Linnaeus, succeeded in solving the 
question which had perplexed the minds of all 
preceding botanists, and offered a plan which, 
if not perfect, was at least complete enough to 



CHARLES LINNyEUS, 1707-1778. 95 

enable naturalists to follow their studies with 
much greater ease than had ever been possible 
before. 

Linnaeus, so called from the Latinized form 
of the family name, Linne, was born at Rashult, 
in the Province of Smaland in Sweden, in the 
year 1707. His father was the pastor of the 
village, and had a fine taste for flowers, which 
he cultivated successfully, introducing so many 
rare exotics in his collection that the little gar- 
den soon became famous even far beyond the 
limits of the parish. All the Linne family were 
passionately fond of botany, taking their name, 
even, from the great linden-tree which towered 
far above the houses of their native village ; and 
Carl, the minister's little son, was no exception 
to the rule, and the little garden sloping down 
to the lake, stocked with rare and beautiful 
plants, and visited by admiring friends who lis- 
tened respectfully while the pastor talked learn- 
edly about this flower or that, was one of the 
boy's first recollections. 

Later on he had a garden of his own given 
him, and then, besides the collection from the 



96 CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. 

home plot, all the neighboring country was laid 
under contribution, and wood and meadow and 
hill-side had all to give up their treasures to the 
brown-eyed boy who sought them with such un- 
tiring zeal. Very strange things found their way 
into the little garden, the commonest wild-flowers 
and poisonous weeds being alike cherished with 
the roses and lilies, and, had it not been for the 
father's intervention, even colonies of wild bees 
and wasps would have been domiciled there ; 
but, as these threatened the safety of the hive- 
bees, Carl was forced to allow them to depart to 
their wild haunts again. 

The boy studied the secrets of bud and leaf 
and perfect flower with such eagerness that, be- 
fore he was eight years old, all the four hundred 
different plants in his father's collection were 
perfectly familiar to him, and he could under- 
stand the interesting talks about their nature 
and properties ; and the father took care that 
the knowledge thus gained should be of the 
most accurate and practical character ; Carl had 
memory-exercises given him in which he was 
required to describe the composition and prop- 



CHARLES LINNiEUS, 1707-1778. 97 

erties of certain plants, and this careful training 
of eye and ear was no doubt the foundation of 
that wonderful power of observation for which 
he was so celebrated later on. 

At first this intelligent love for flowers 
brought only pleasure to his parents, who 
looked with pride upon a son so likely to keep 
up the traditions of the Linne family, but, as 
time passed, they became anxious that he should 
show an equal interest in other branches of 
knowledge. 

But this Carl refused to do, and the first 
trouble of his life began with his school-days, 
when he was forced to learn weary lessons in 
arithmetic and grammar, instead of roaming 
through the woods and meadows of Stenbrohult 
gathering specimens for his herbarium and 
learning fresh secrets of the great world of nat- 
ure around him. 

But his father and mother were ambitious for 
Carl ; they wished him to become a famous 
minister and succeed his father in the rector- 
ship, or even perhaps be greater still and gain 
a name that would resound through Sweden. 



98 CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. 

And so his dislike for his school-studies was 
frowned down by both parents, and, when the 
boy was ten years of age, it was decided that he 
should be sent to the Latin school at Wexio, to 
begin the usual course of study necessary for 
the training of a clergyman. 

It cost some denial on the part of the pastor 
to furnish the money for the boy's outfit, but in 
time all things were ready, and, one pleasant 
spring morning, just as the Stenbrohult mead- 
ows were turning green again, and the buds 
were swelling with the rich life of the new year, 
Carl and his father started for Wexio, where 
great things were expected. 

And to the boy the whole world seemed as 
full of promise as the opening year, and he did 
not doubt that at Wexio he should unravel all 
the mysteries that had ever puzzled him, and 
that all the secrets that had hitherto lain hidden 
in the hearts of his loved flowers would disclose 
themselves to his eyes, just as the lilies in his 
little garden unfolded their dazzling petals and 
showed their golden hearts when warmed by 
the June sun. 



CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-I778. 99 

But great was the disappointment of the 
Linne family when it became known that Carl 
was not showing himself such a clever boy, after 
all, and that grammar and theology and Latin 
were still odious to him, and that he preferred a 
ramble through the country-lanes to all the 
books in the school-library, unless they were 
books on botany. Other boys were praised, 
and delighted their friends by winning honors 
in their classes, but Carl had only censure, and 
the highest honor he ever received was that of 
being called the " Little Botanist" by his good- 
natured companions ; and so poor was his record 
at Wexio that, when he was seventeen, his father 
decided to apprentice him to a shoemaker ; for 
he thought him a hopeless dunce, and that all 
his self denying efforts to give him an education 
had been made in vain. 

But, in spite of his stupidity in regard to 
Latin grammar, Carl had made one friend in 
Wexio in the person of Dr. Rothman, the prin- 
cipal physician of the town, who had been at- 
tracted to the boy by his love of botany, and 
who now offered to take Carl into his house 



100 CHARLES LINN^US, 1707-1778. 

while he finished his course at Wexio, provided 
he should be allowed to study medicine instead 
of theology. 

The discouraged father readily agreed to 
this, and thus Carl was saved from being a 
shoemaker, a calling he would doubtless have 
disliked as much as the ministry, and happier 
days began at once, for he was allowed to fol- 
low his favorite pursuits without offending his 
father, and received encouragement and advice 
where before he had only met with disapproval 
or ridicule. 

This was the decisive period in the boy's ca- 
reer, and it was while he was with this kind 
friend that his life-work was decided upon, for 
here he came across the writings of Tournefort, 
the greatest botanist of his time, and was so 
impressed by these works that he decided to 
devote his life to the study of botany. All his 
energies, therefore, were bent in this direction, 
and he studied to such good purpose that when 
he left Wexio, at the end of three years from 
the time he entered Dr. Rothman's house, he 
had already laid the foundations of that vast 



CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. IOI 

knowledge for which he afterward became fa- 
mous. 

But his studies in other directions had been 
so unsatisfactory to his teachers that, in place of 
the usual certificate from the school, he bore one 
which stated that he was regarded as an un- 
promising plant which had not flourished in 
Wexio but which might possibly blossom and 
bear fruit in some more congenial soil. 

But notwithstanding this discouragement, 
Linnaeus entered the University of Upsala a 
year afterward, with his hopes higher than ever, 
for the magnificent library and fine botanic gar- 
den presented unusual advantages for his favor- 
ite study. But now began troublesome times 
for Linnaeus. He had entered Upsala with 
very little money, hoping to obtain private pu- 
pils, which would help him meet his expenses ; 
but without influence or friends, what could be 
expected for a young student who scorned the 
regular course of study and threw his whole 
soul into the fascinating subject of natural his- 
tory ? His money rapidly disappeared, and no 
friend came to offer a helping hand. The pro- 



102 CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. 

fessors in the university did not particularly 
notice the poorly dressed young man who plain- 
ly showed that he thought more of the com- 
monest plant in the botanical garden than of all 
their learned lectures ; and, had it not been for 
the society and encouragement of his friend Ar- 
tedi, a fellow-student, who like him was poor and 
unknown, the brave heart of Linnaeus might 
have failed him at this critical period. 

Artedi, like Linnaeus, was devoted to natural 
science, and was consequently very unpopular 
at Upsala, where the study of the classics was 
considered of more consequence than anything 
else, and the two friends were thus drawn to- 
gether by something more than the ordinary 
bonds of friendship. And so the two unknown 
students joined their forces against poverty and 
unpopularity, and even then found the battle 
going against them. 

They wore the poorest clothing, patched and 
darned with their own hands, and were hungry 
and cold many a time as they sat in their hum- 
ble rooms, for which at last they could not even 
pay the rent. Linnaeus mended his shoes 



CHARLES LINN^US, 1707-1778. 103 

with paper, and Artedi picked berries for their 
breakfast when they went botanizing, and their 
only comfort lay in the hope that Celsius, a pro- 
fessor who was then absent, might return and 
take notice of them because of his own love for 
natural history. 

But nearly two years passed before this hope 
was realized, and the friends suffered all the 
discomforts of poverty, and Linnaeus was just 
on the point of leaving Upsala in despair when 
Celsius did at last come back, and bring hope 
with him. Linnaeus saw him first in the same 
botanical garden which had been the means of 
bringing him into such disgrace with the pro- 
fessors, and from the first moment of their meet- 
ing a new life began for the poor and obscure 
young student. Celsius was surprised and de- 
lighted with his unusual knowledge of botany, 
and, finding out his poverty readily enough, took 
him into his own house to live. 

And then Upsala awoke at last and found out 
that Linnaeus was there, for Celsius was one of 
the most celebrated men in Sweden, and did not 
hesitate to show his opinion of his protege's 



104 CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. 

talents. He gave Linnaeus every possible op- 
portunity for study, and it was while he was at 
Celsius' house, assisting him in preparing a 
work on the plants mentioned in the Bible, that 
the idea of his own great system first came into 
his mind. - 

The modern world had improved very little 
upon the plan of the old Greeks for the study of 
botany, and up to the time of Linnaeus no sys- 
tem had been successfully introduced by which 
new and strange plants could be classified. 
One naturalist offered a system based upon the 
nature of the fruit ; another separated the whole 
vegetable world into flowering and flowerless 
plants ; a third declared that the flower and the 
fruit must both be considered ; and a fourth 
classified according to the form of the flower. 

Each system had something to recommend it, 
and yet all were sadly deficient, and botanists 
were far from satisfied. 

At the time of Linnaeus the system in vogue 
was that of Tournefort, who established his 
principles according to the form of the flower or 
blossom. But although this system was gener- 



CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. 105 

ally accepted throughout Europe as being as 
perfect as any that had been offered, it did not 
by any means fully satisfy the scientific world. 
New plants were being constantly brought from 
abroad, owing to the better travelling facilities, 
and many of these foreign specimens found no 
place in the system of Tournefort. 

It seemed that the time had come when a 
new basis of classification must be found which 
would not only dispose more satisfactorily of 
the families of plants then known, but also in- 
clude those strange blossoms that began to find 
their way from remote places in Asia, and from 
America and the islands of the sea. 

And just at this time Linnaeus appeared with 
a theory that revolutionized botanical science, 
and was destined in a few years to make his 
name renowned over the civilized world. 

At first it did not seem possible to the pro- 
fessors at Upsala that they had been mistaken 
in the abilities of the young student from Sten- 
brohult, whose poverty and lack of friends had 
kept him in the greatest obscurity, and whose 
stubborn pursuit of botany had offended them ; 



106 CHARLES LINNiEUS, 1707-1778. 

but Celsius soon showed them their error, and 
Linnaeus proved worthy the faith of his good 
friend. He was but twenty-three years old 
when the idea which formed the basis of his 
new system flashed upon him, and his youth 
and obscurity might have stood greatly in his 
way but for the high opinion that Celsius held 
of his talents. 

But, sure of the favor and appreciation of his 
new friend, Linnaeus went on developing his 
new thought and bringing it to perfection until 
it was perfectly clear and distinct in his own 
mind, and he was furnished with sufficient 
proofs to make it plain to others. Then he 
prepared a paper stating his views, which met 
with the warmest approval from Celsius. A 
public discussion was just then being carried 
on in the university, and Linnaeus took this op- 
portunity of reading his paper and bringing his 
new theory into notice. Upsala Avas at first as- 
tounded, and then delighted, and before long 
all Sweden was ringing with the name of the 
young student whose talent was to confer im- 
mortal honor upon his country. 



CHARLES LINNAEUS, 1707-1778. 107 

He was appointed Assistant Professor of Bot- 
any in the university, and his lectures at once 
became famous and attracted large numbers of 
students to Upsala, and thus, in less than three 
years from his entrance to the university, he had 
been advanced to a position and received honors 
that were undreamed of when he first entered 
its inhospitable walls. 

The Linnaean system, which made such prog- 
ress as to rapidly supersede all others, is 
founded upon the number, situation, and propor- 
tion of the stamens and pistils of flowers. It 
divides the vegetable world into twenty-four 
classes, distinguished by their stamens, and 
these classes are again divided into orders, 
which are generally marked by the number of 
pistils. 

This system was the most perfect that had 
yet been offered, and the surprise and delight 
of naturalists who found classification thus easily 
simplified at once brought it into popular favor. 
It had, of course, many imperfections, which 
were regretted by none more than by Linnaeus 
himself, and he never spoke of it as a perfected 



108 CHARLES LINN/EUS, 1707-1778. 

system but always considered it only as a lead- 
ing toward truer ways of classification. 

The idea which Linnaeus made use of was 
not original with him, for it was hinted at by 
more than one old Greek, and had lain dormant 
in the minds of naturalists for centuries, but Lin- 
naeus was the first to think of using it as a 
basis for a system of classification, and it must 
thus be forever associated with his name. 

This system is called the artificial system, be- 
cause it merely furnished a convenient method 
of finding the name and place of a plant, with- 
out regard to its relationship. 

The natural system, which is based upon the 
relationship of one family of plants with another, 
in time superseded the Linnaean system, which 
owes its chief interest now to the fact that it was 
the first classification which made it possible to 
reduce the study of botany to a science, and 
that its establishment led to the development of 
the natural system, which Linnaeus himself de- 
clared to be the only true way of classifying, 
and which his system only embraced in part. 

After his appointment as professor at Up- 



CHARLES LINN^US, 1707-1778. IO9 

sala, other honors rapidly followed. The next 
year he was commissioned by the Royal Acad- 
emy of Sciences to travel through Lapland and 
examine its natural curiosities and productions, 
and this trip was a source of great pleasure to 
him, though travelling was often dangerous in 
those remote regions, where rocks and marshes 
obstructed the way, and roads were almost un- 
known. It was while on this trip that he found 
a little unknown plant growing in shady places 
which he immortalized by giving it his own 
name, the Linncza borealis, and which, he said, 
typified his own "neglected fate and early ma- 
turity/' 

The journey was a success, and raised him 
still higher in the estimation of Upsala, but his 
honors could not shield him from the jealousy 
of enemies who prevented his obtaining the 
position at the university that he expected to 
receive, and, disappointed in this, Linnaeus left 
Upsala and undertook a journey into Nor- 
way under a commission from the Governor of 
Dalecarlia; and with this trip he began those 
extensive travels which lasted through so many 



IIO CHARLES LINN/EUS, 1707-I778. 

years and in which he gained the experience 
that enabled him to go on with his work and 
add more and more to his fame. 

From Dalecarlia he proceeded to Holland, 
where he wished to obtain his degree, going by 
the way of Hamburg, whose honest burghers he 
insulted by revealing the fact that their wonder- 
ful hydra, or seven-headed serpent, was nothing 
more than a clever fraud, with its seven heads 
all made of the jaw-bones of weasels, and this 
made him so unpopular that some friends actu- 
ally advised him to shorten his stay in the city. 

He took his degree as Doctor of Medicine at 
Harderwyk (1735), an d immediately after went 
to Leyden, where he formed the acquaintance 
of the celebrated naturalist Gronovius, who was 
so astonished when Linnaeus showed him his 
Systema Naturae that he offered to publish it 
at his own expense. 

The publication of this work immediately 
brought Linnaeus to the notice of all the emi- 
nent naturalists of Europe, and procured for 
him great attention wherever he appeared ; and 
during the three years he spent in Holland, 



CHARLES LINN/EUS, 1707-1778. Ill 



France, and England he received the most dis- 
tinguished favors. 

All this, however, could not prevent a longing 
for home, whither he returned in 1738, and four 
years after was appointed Professor of Botany 
at Upsala, a position he had long desired. 

And now life, at last, seemed only pleasant 
to him. Occupying the proud position of the 
first naturalist in Europe, and with means at 
his hand to command whatever resources he 
desired, he devoted his time more diligently 
than ever to study, and gained new honors year 
by year. The number of students in the uni- 
versity increased from five hundred to fifteen 
hundred, all attracted by the fame of Linnaeus, 
and the collection of plants in the botanical gar- 
dens soon became unrivalled. 

Rare specimens were sent to him from the 
most distant places, and his pupils were soon 
scattered all over the globe, carrying his name 
and fame with them, and thinking themselves 
well repaid for all their trouble if they were able 
to bring some new or rare plant to their be- 
loved master. Many important discoveries were 



112 CHARLES LINN^US, 1707-1778. 

made at this time by Linnaeus, not the least in- 
teresting being that of the sleep of flowers, 
which was first brought to his notice by the 
closing of the petals of a lotos in the evening. 

From this circumstance he formed the theory, 
and proved that flowers have regular periods 
of sleep, and he made a little calendar in which 
the hours of the day were marked off by the 
closing of the different blossoms. 

In these congenial pursuits time passed pleas- 
antly enough, and Linnaeus almost forgot the 
hardships and struggles of his early youth. 
Sweden, ever ready to do him honor, offered 
him one mark of distinction after another, until 
there seemed nothing left to offer. In 1761 the 
king made him a noble, and the family was 
thenceforth called Von Linne, an honor little 
dreamed of by its peasant-founder. And thus, 
with the years full of content, life went happily 
on, and when old age came to Linnaeus he 
could reflect on years that had been well spent 
and full of good to his fellow-men. 

During the last years of his life he suffered 
much from disease and mental weakness, but 



CHARLES LINN^US, 1707-1778. 1 1 3 

still kept his serene and cheerful spirit, and 
never lost his keen interest in his beloved stud- 
ies. 

And when death came to him at last one day 
as he lay quietly sleeping, it seemed but as the 
folding of the perfect flower which closes its 
petals when its time of expansion is over, and 
becomes a fragrant memory, full of a sweetness 
and grace as enduring as the immortal beauty 
of which it was a part. 



CHAPTER VI. 

HERSCHEL AND THE STORY OF THE STARS, 
I738-I822. 

The early state of society is sometimes called 
the childhood of the race, when none of the 
questions which vex the human mind had yet 
been asked and mankind accepted all things as 
a child does, without doubt or comment. 

And as the child looks without wonder on all 
the marvels of creation, and fears nothing, know- 
ing that the day-world, with all its beauty, will 
only fade away to be supplanted by the night- 
world, with its charm of star and moon and 
dream, so did the early races look with the same 
unquestioning eyes upon the succession of day 
and night, and starlight and sunlight were to 
them but two separate kingdoms, over which 
they had equal dominion but of whose re- 
sources they had no knowledge. 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 1 1 5 

The Chaldeans and Egyptians were the first 
nations who have left us records of their studies 
of the world of nature, and it is to them that we 
owe the faint beginnings of scientific thought. 
Believers in a fate or destiny which ruled all the 
affairs of men from the greatest to the smallest, 
they sought, in every manifestation of nature, a 
sign, or lesson, and their faith in the influence 
of the stars upon the lives of men gave to the 
study of the heavens a special value. 

This superstition passed, with the progress 
of knowledge, into the minds of other nations, 
and among the Greeks there early arose a sep- 
arate class of students called astronomers, from 
the word aster, a star, which had for its object 
the study of the stars, and it was from this de- 
sire to connect all the workings of nature with 
the affairs of daily life that the science of astron- 
omy was born. 

For ages the stars and planets, " the lamps 
of heaven/' were regarded with a supersti- 
tious awe, and the old faith of the Chaldean 
priests could be found living in the breasts of the 
mystics of the Middle Ages, long after the race 



Il6 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

had outgrown its childhood, and astrology, the 
science which professed to foretell the fate of 
man from the constellation which ruled at his 
birth, still flourished when the advancement of 
thought had brought about a state of society in 
which science and the arts played an important 
part. 

But modern thought finally freed itself from 
this intellectual bondage, and set about the 
study of the stars in the same practical manner 
that a seaman would undertake a voyage of dis- 
covery, and from that time astronomical knowl- 
edge made rapid progress. 

Among the greatest of modern astronomers 
was William Herschel, who was born in the city 
of Hanover in 1738. His father was an oboeist 
in the Hanoverian Guards, and the child's first 
impressions were connected with the little mu- 
sicales that were held every evening in the un- 
pretentious family sitting-room. Money was 
scarce in this obscure little household, the fa- 
ther's salary hardly sufficing to bring needed 
comforts to the children, but there was not a 
happier family in the city, for all that. The 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 117 

father had all a musician's love for his art, 
and wanted nothing more, when his hours of 
duty and teaching were over, than to gather 
his children around him and improvise a family 
concert, training the little performers with 
earnest care, noticing their improvement with 
fatherly pride, and refreshing himself with the 
thought that he was supplying them with a re- 
source that, no matter how hard their lot might 
be, would always be a comfort and help to them 
in the future. 

William was the second son, and very early 
was considered an important personage in the 
family group, showing an extraordinary taste 
for music, and developing a great talent for dis- 
cussion ; for, besides their musical bent, the fam- 
ily were much given to grave talks about every- 
thing that attracted their attention. As the 
children grew older the father adapted these 
conversations to subjects best suited to develop 
their minds, and art and philosophy were as 
eagerly discussed as music. Sometimes, be- 
fore the evening was over, they would all go 
out of doors, and spend an hour in studying 



Il8 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

the constellations and listening to their father's 
remarks on astronomy, which seemed just as 
interesting to them as their lessons in music, 
although it was quite understood that all the 
sons were to be musicians, a calling that seemed 
the most honorable and enviable of any to the 
entire family. 

With the idea of initiating them as early as 
possible into the mysteries of their chosen pro- 
fession, the father allowed them from time to 
time to take part in public concerts, their talent 
being so unusual that even as children they 
were given solo parts to play, and thus, while 
yet a little boy, the future astronomer was made 
to assume certain responsibilities, and to look 
upon life seriously. 

The Herschel boys attended the garrison 
school in Hanover, where they learned the 
ordinary branches, their father taking care that 
any deficiency in the course should be supplied 
at home, and letting them feel that in all their 
pursuits and enjoyments he wished to be their 
companion and friend. It was necessary, how- 
ever, for the children to aid in the support of 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 119 

the family as soon as possible, and therefore 
the two oldest sons were yet lads when they 
entered the guards, William accepting the posi- 
tion of oboe-player. The family concerts, how- 
ever, still continued, only interrupted by the 
making of musical instruments and all sorts of 
mechanical toys, for which the father and sons 
had a fancy, and the family discussions still 
formed an interesting part of their life, more 
than half the night often being passed in ani- 
mated talk as to the merits of the different ar- 
tists, philosophers, and naturalists who were 
then famous. 

William remained in the army for four years, 
one year of which was spent in England, and at 
the age of nineteen left the guards on account 
of delicate health, and returned to England, 
with the hope of being able to earn his living 
there. 

A less enterprising youth might have been 
dismayed at the prospect of being homeless 
and friendless in a foreign land, but Herschel 
did not consider his lot by any means hopeless. 
He could speak English well enough to make 



120 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

himself understood, could play on the oboe, vio- 
lin, and organ with sufficient skill to assure 
him some kind of a living, and, above all, his 
wants were few and modest ; and so his new life 
in England did not frighten him, and he began 
it with a brave heart. 

Some years were spent by the young musi- 
cian in wandering from one town to another, 
without having any permanent employment, 
but finally he came under the notice of Dr. Mil- 
ler, a well-known organist of Durham, who was 
so delighted with Herschel's rendition of the 
works of his favorite composers that he invited 
him to come and live with him, promising to do 
all that he could to advance him in his profes- 
sion. Herschel accepted this generous offer in 
the same good faith in which it was made, and 
from this time his success was assured. 

Miller's influence procured him the place of 
first violin in the popular concerts at Durham, 
where he speedily became a favorite, and was 
soon offered as many pupils as he could take ; 
and as his popularity spread he was offered one 
advantageous position after another, until he 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 121 

was finally appointed organist of the principal 
church in Bath, where the gay society and in- 
telligent companionship of his new friends, to- 
gether with increased means at his disposal and 
larger facilities for study, made up a life as 
pleasant as could be desired. 

Herschel was at this time about twenty-eight 
years old, and had made such progress in music 
that he soon began to publish his compositions, 
and to have the satisfaction of seeing them fa- 
vorably received by the public. At this time, 
although an earnest student and devoting every 
spare moment to study, he seems to have had 
no other ambition than to become a good mu- 
sician ; and in order to accomplish this, he be- 
gan a careful study of harmony, using for his 
instruction a work on harmonics which then 
enjoyed considerable fame. The study of har- 
mony is dependent upon a knowledge of ma- 
thematics, and this led to kindred subjects. 
The author of the (< Harmonics " had also writ- 
ten a work on optics, which fascinated Hers- 
chel to such a degree that he pored over it 
every leisure moment of the day, and spent 



122 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

long hours of the night in studying it. His 
interest was turned in this way to astronomy, 
and so absorbed did he become in this sub- 
ject that he had no rest until he had procured a 
telescope and looked out all the objects in the 
heavens which were described in the books. 
And when this point was reached, his true work 
in life first began. From the time that he first 
saw the magnificent spectacle of the heavens 
revealed to him in its hitherto unknown splen- 
dor, he devoted himself to its study with an 
ardor that made all his previous interests seem 
insignificant. 

Pupils were dismissed in order to gain more 
time for study and observation, although he 
could not well spare the money, and his brother 
and sister, who now lived with him, were 
drawn off from their musical studies and 
pressed into the service of making telescopes 
and other instruments necessary for surveying 
the heavens. 

The brother and sister gave themselves to the 
new work with the energy that characterized 
the family ; and soon the house was turned into 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 123 

a huge workshop, and stands, tubes, and mirrors 
were turned out as fast as possible. 

Herschel became so engrossed that he would 
not leave the workshop even for his meals, and 
his sister could only induce him to eat by stand- 
ing by his side and putting the food into his 
mouth, while at the concerts and theatres where 
he led large orchestras, it was no uncommon 
thing for him to rush out between the acts and 
spend the time in snatching brief glimpses of the 
heavens. This industry was well rewarded, for 
Herschel was so successful in his experiments 
that he was able to produce telescopes far su- 
perior to any that had yet been made, and re- 
ceived quite an addition to his income by the 
sale therefrom ; and the careful study of the 
heavens which he then began proved of infin- 
ite service to him later on. 

Herschel's great object was to make a more 
thorough survey of the stars than had yet been 
attempted, and, in order to do this, he mapped 
out the heavens in sections, determining to study 
each part with the greatest care ; and so ear- 
nestly did he carry out this plan that for years 



124 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

he never went to bed of a clear night while a 
star was visible, remaining winter and summer 
in the open air until the day dawned. While 
thus engaged Herschel noticed one night a star 
of different appearance and much larger than 
the small stars near it, and a careful observation 
for two or three nights showed him that the 
body did not remain stationary, and scintillate 
as the stars, but that it shone with a steady 
light and appeared to change its place. Her- 
schel thereupon decided that he had found a new 
comet, and at once announced the discovery to 
the world. All the astronomers of Europe im- 
mediately turned their attention to this interest- 
ing object, and mathematicians at once began to 
observe its motions and calculate from them the 
size and shape of its orbit. All the comets that 
w r ere known had been found to have orbits very 
elliptical in form, but, after many months of cal- 
culation, astronomers were forced to admit that 
the new comet could not move in an orbit sim- 
ilar to those of other comets, but that, on the 
contrary, it was travelling in a path only slightly 
elliptical, like that of the earth and other planets, 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL 3 1738-1822. 125 

This conclusion at once led to the suggestion 
that perhaps the new object was not a comet, 
after all, but a planet, and, startling as this idea 
seemed, it was finally demonstrated by the 
French astronomer Laplace, that Herschel had 
really discovered a new planet. 

The world of science was electrified by this 
discovery, which was not only the greatest that 
had been made by the telescope since the splen- 
did revelations of Galileo, but the greatest that 
had ever been made. The other planets had 
been known as far back as the memory of man 
extended, and the finding of new stars, or of 
the satellites of the planets, seemed of much 
less importance than the discovery that there 
was still another member of the system of plan- 
ets, like them bound by the mysterious influ- 
ences that held them together, and performing 
its regular revolution around the sun, although 
its presence had been unknown and unsuspected 
through all the countless ages of the world. 

Astronomy was invested with a new interest, 
and all eyes were turned with eager gaze to 
the starry fields of heaven, for who could tell 



126 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

what new wonder might not be found, far away 
in the dim recesses of space ? 

And in the meantime honors were showered 
upon the one who had read this new secret, and 
who had hithertp only been known to the world 
as a clever amateur astronomer who had spent 
the intervals between his musical studies in 
writing a theory on the height of the mountains 
of the moon, or in manufacturing telescopes. 

Herschel wished to name the new planet after 
George III., King of England, but this was ob- 
jected to by other astronomers, some of whom 
proposed to call it after its discoverer and oth- 
ers thinking it would be more in harmony with 
the traditions of science to give it the name of 
one of the old Greek deities. These last car- 
ried the day, and the planet was finally named 
Uranus, after the oldest of the gods. 

Uranus was discovered on the 13th of March, 
1781. It had been before this mapped as a 
star, and, in order to connect the discovery of its 
planetary character with the name of Herschel, 
its sign in astronomical records is the letter H 
with a suspended orb. 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 12J 

It was now generally acknowledged that the 
labors of such a genius as Herschel should be 
devoted to science alone, and accordingly the 
king granted him a pension which enabled him 
to give up teaching. Some time after this the 
family moved to Slough, where there were bet- 
ter opportunities offered for study, and Her- 
schel at once began the construction of an im- 
mense telescope which, when finished, greatly 
aided him in his survey of the heavens. 

A new satellite of Saturn was discovered the 
day after the completion of the great telescope, 
and in 1787 it was found that Uranus was fur- 
nished with two moons. This discovery filled 
Herschel with delight, being an added proof of 
the harmony that extended throughout the uni- 
verse. Before making it known, and in order 
to be absolutely sure that he had not been mis- 
taken, Herschel prepared a sketch of Uranus 
and his revolving satellites as they would ap- 
pear on a certain night, and great was his joy, 
when the moment came, to find that the posi- 
tion and appearance of the group exactly cor- 
responded to his drawing. 



128 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

This experiment seemed to give him a greater 
hold than ever upon the secret of the heavens, 
which he spoke of as a luxuriant garden filled 
with choice flowers, whose life might be watched 
from the bursting of the seed through all the 
successive stages of foliage, bloom, maturity, 
and decay, just as plants are studied from the 
time of the sowing of the seed to the fall of the 
last leaf in autumn. 

Two thousand years before the time of Her- 
schel a catalogue of the stars had been executed 
by Hipparchus, the Greek astronomer, who was 
led to the work by the appearance of a new star 
of unusual brilliancy which disappeared after a 
while from the heavens. And although from 
time to time after this, star-catalogues were pre- 
pared, it was reserved for Herschel to make 
the first thorough and systematic attempt to 
construct a catalogue in which the stars were 
classified according to their relative brightness. 
In the preparation of this catalogue the conclu- 
sion was reached by Herschel that there are cer- 
tain stars which appear and disappear, and oth- 
ers whose light increases and diminishes for no 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 129 

known reason. Such stars are called variable 
stars, and it is of the utmost consequence in 
preparing a catalogue to take these into account. 
In catalogues, the stars are classed as of the 
first magnitude, second magnitude, and so on, 
according to their brightness. Stars of the 
sixth magnitude are visible to the naked eye, 
while the telescope even reveals those of the 
seventeenth magnitude ; but these numbers do 
not signify the actual degrees of brightness, as 
a star of the first magnitude shines with one 
hundred times the brilliance of one of the sixth. 

When viewed through a telescope, certain 
stars which appear only as brilliant points to the 
naked eye can be separated into one or more 
stars, and a careful study of these interesting 
bodies led Herschel to one of his grandest dis- 
coveries. 

He observed these stars through several 
years, and at last came to the conclusion that in 
all cases of double stars one revolved around 
the other, just as the moon revolves around the 
earth. 

Newton's system of gravitation bound the 



I30 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

earth and planets to the sun, and made of the 
solar system a harmonious whole, but Her- 
schel's discovery of the revolution of one star 
around another went even further than this, and 
extended the harmony to the farthest regions 
of space, and the grandeur of this discovery was 
alone sufficient to make the name of Herschel 
famous in the history of science. 

In connection with his study of the stars, Her- 
schel undertook to measure their distances from 
the earth, and to find out if their brightness de- 
pended upon their nearness to or remoteness 
from us. And after a long series of careful ex- 
periments, he determined that if stars of the first 
magnitude, like Sirius and Arcturus, were re- 
moved twelve times their actual distance, they 
would be just visible to the naked eye, while 
if stars which are only now to be seen through 
a telescope were to be brought nearer to the 
earth so as to be only one-tenth as far away as 
they now are, they would shine with the bright- 
ness of the largest and most brilliant stars. 
He concluded, therefore, that the brightness 
of the stars depended on their distance, and 
that the fainter stars were the more distant 



WILLIAM HFRSCHEL, 1738-1822, 131 

ones, and even devised a method based on this 
idea by which their relative distances could be 
ascertained. 

It is now known that he was wrong in this 
view, for some of the faintest stars have been 
found to be among those nearest the earth ; 
but the difficulties met in determining star-dis- 
tances are so great that it was not till sixteen 
years after the death of Herschel, and when 
the instruments for making observations had 
been greatly improved, that the distance of a 
fixed star was actually measured. Herschel's 
investigations and experiments on the light of 
the stars and their distance led the way to some 
of the most valuable and wonderful results of 
modern astronomical research and have given 
him the position of a pioneer in the science. 

In connection with these studies, Herschel 
also took up the subject of the nature of the 
sun and its place in the universe. The ac- 
cepted theory of the sun's nature was that it was 
a solid, surrounded by a luminous atmosphere 
which gave it its brightness, and this theory, 
with some changes, was also held by Herschel. 
But his deductions in regard to the sun's place 



132 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

in the universe were of more importance. His 
discovery of the revolution of double stars could 
only lead to speculation with regard to all the 
objects of creation, and it was but natural to 
conclude that motion, which was a property of 
so many, should belong to all. 

Observations extended from the time of the 
ancients had led to the conclusion that some 
of the largest stars of the first magnitude had 
changed their places within the historic period, 
and they were therefore supposed to have an 
individual motion, and from this fact Herschel 
argued a corresponding motion for the sun, 
which he decided was itself a small star. He 
therefore began a series of experiments, and 
finally came to the conclusion that the sun, with 
all his attendant company of planets and com- 
ets, was in reality moving through space at a 
marvellous rate of progress, and that, in accord- 
ance with the law of gravitation, he was passing 
through an orbit of inconceivable magnitude 
having for its centre one of the remote stars. 

It has been thought that this great central 
fire whose mighty forces thus govern the mech- 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 133 

anism of the solar system is the star Alcyone, 
in the Pleiades, but of this we cannot be sure. 
We only know that the sun, with his great ret- 
inue of revolving worlds, is moving toward 
some unknown point in the heavens, and 
that the stars, which were once thought to be 
brilliant globes firmly fixed in crystal spheres, 
are in reality probably the centres of attendant 
planets which they carry with them in their ma- 
jestic progress through the boundless regions 
of space ; and that, if it were possible to view 
the heavens as they really are, we should see 
an infinite number of such systems, with orbits 
crossing and recrossing, in the most intricate 
manner, but in place of the apparent confusion 
and entanglement there exist the most exqui- 
site order and symmetry. 

Herschel's study of the heavens also included 
observations on those cloud-like appearances 
called nebulce which are seen in various constel- 
lations, and of which the Milky Way is the 
greatest example. 

From the earliest times this broad band of 
light had attracted the attention of mankind, 



134 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

and many quaint legends were connected with 
it. The Romans called it the Highway of the 
Gods, and in later times it was sometimes 
spoken of as Jacob's Ladder / but even among 
the ancients some true idea of its character ex- 
isted, for Pythagoras declared that the Milky 
Way was only a great assemblage of stars, and 
Galileo's telescope had proved that in the main 
the theory of the old Greek was correct. At 
first Herschel was led to believe that all neb- 
ulae could be seen to be made up of stars, if 
viewed through a sufficiently powerful tele- 
scope. But later he changed his opinion, and 
came to the conclusion that there were two 
kinds of nebulae — the resolvable, which are 
made up of great star-clusters which have a 
cloudy appearance from their immense numbers 
and great distance, and the irresolvable, which 
are immense masses of self-luminous matter 
which gradually is condensing into solids like 
the sun and stars. This last idea was not new 
to Herschel, for Tycho Brahe and Kepler had 
both suggested that the " new stars " which ap- 
peared from time to time might be caused by 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 135 



the condensation of the ether which filled all 
space. And although all " new stars" are really 
believed now to belong to the temporary stars 
which appear and disappear with regularity, yet 
the thought that the universe had been evolved 
out of such matter shows in a marked degree 
the originality and boldness of Kepler's genius. 

The French astronomer Laplace, a contem- 
porary of Herschel, also held this theory of the 
nebulae, which he published in a work called 
the " Nebular Hypothesis/' 

Laplace conceived that the solar system con- 
sisted originally of matter in the form of gas or 
vapor of an enormously high temperature ; that 
as it cooled unequal currents were formed, which 
gradually caused it to rotate ; that its rate of 
motion increased until the outside, which was 
of a lower temperature than the centre, would 
become detached and break up into smaller 
parts ; that these parts came together finally 
and formed spheroidal masses which revolved 
around the centre ; that the sun was what was 
left of the original matter, and the planets and 
asteroids were the parts that had been thrown 



136 WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 

off. This theory, which had its foundation in 
the action of the law of gravitation, may apply 
not only to the solar system but to the entire 
universe, and Herschel's idea of the irresolvable 
nebulae, consisting of a shining fluid which was 
solidifying into stars, has been supported by 
later astronomers, for when the light from these 
nebulae has been analyzed it has given out the 
colors of matter in a state of gas, while an anal- 
ysis of the light of the stars gives a very differ- 
ent result. 

And thus Herschel's comparison of the heav- 
ens to a flower-garden may be seen to have a 
deeper significance than would at first appear ; 
and if we consider the claims of the nebular 
hypothesis, we might say that the nebulae are 
the great seed-repositories of nature, from 
which are evolved all the stars and planets 
which, passing through the time of bloom and 
maturity, come at last to a state resembling 
that of the dead moons — the withered flowers 
of these celestial gardens — from which all life 
has passed away. 

Herschel made many observations on light 



WILLIAM HERSCHEL, 1738-1822. 1 37 

and heat in connection with his other studies, 
but he is chiefly remarkable for his exhaustive 
survey of the stars. 

He died in 1822, at the age of eighty-four, 
preserving his great mental powers till the last, 
and claiming, with truth, that he had looked 
farther into space than any other eye had yet 
penetrated. 

The nebular hypothesis which his researches 
helped to formulate is as yet but an unproved 
theory, and whether it embodies the true secret 
of creation or not we cannot tell. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RUMFORD AND THE RELATIONS OF MOTION AND 
HEAT, 1753-1814. 

Benjamin Thompson, known in the scientific 
world as Count Rumford, was born in North 
Woburn, Mass., in 1753. His family had been 
farmers for generations, and his relatives des- 
tined him for the same calling ; but the boy- 
showed such a distaste toward farming that this 
fact, in connection with some troubles in rela- 
tion to the distribution of the property, led at 
last to the choice of another mode of life. 

Up to his eleventh year young Thompson 
attended the village school, and learned read- 
ing, writing, and arithmetic for several hours in 
the day, devoting his play-hours to the more 
congenial employment of making drawings of 
his companions' faces, which he often carica- 
tured unmercifully, constructing various me- 




BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. 



RUMFORD, l7S3-l8l4. 139 

chanical toys, and in experimenting in a small 
way in natural philosophy. 

These amusements did not meet the approval 
of his family, whose idea of life was quite differ- 
ent. The experiments and inventions showed 
a taste for something beyond the ordinary rou- 
tine of a farmer's life, and Benjamin's fancy for 
exploring the unknown was hot encouraged. 
Happily for him, he was sent in his eleventh 
year to an adjoining village in order to be under 
the care of a very excellent teacher, and as his 
interest in things outside of the usual line in- 
creased daily by contact with the mind of his 
teacher, it was decided by his friends to give 
up all hopes of making the boy a farmer, and 
apprentice him to some trade. When he was 
thirteen years old, therefore, he was sent to 
Salem to learn to be a merchant, and here he 
met friends who encouraged his love for knowl- 
edge, and aided him in the most substantial 
way. His duties as clerk were faithfully per- 
formed, but they only seemed to him to be 
the necessary means toward something higher. 
All his leisure time was spent either in boyish 



140 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

frolicking, or in studying subjects quite uncon- 
nected with the mercantile life, and both these 
circumstances often caused some of his friends 
to shake their heads gravely over his refusal to 
regard trade as the most serious and respecta- 
ble business of life. 

Their disapproval, however, did not in the 
least affect the spirits of Benjamin, who was al- 
ways ready for fun, sometimes even enlivening 
his dull business by playing on the violin, and 
at others busily engaged over the question of 
making fireworks which he and his friends were 
to send off at the first possible opportunity. A 
little note-book which he kept at this time 
shows a curious mixture of caricatures, draw- 
ings of boats, bottles, tomahawks, human 
bones, bars of music, and pistols, interspersed 
with recipes for making rockets, stars, serpents, 
and other fireworks, illustrated with drawings 
in ink. 

These pursuits, however, did not prevent at- 
tention to more serious subjects, and during the 
first years of his apprenticeship Benjamin made 
such good use of his time, and of his opportu- 



RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 141 

nity of studying with an older friend, that be- 
fore he was fifteen he had a fair knowledge of 
algebra and geometry, and had made such 
progress in astronomy as to be able to calculate 
an eclipse so accurately that it occurred within 
a few seconds of the computed time. 

Trade could not long hold the attention of 
such a mind, and when he was eighteen Ben- 
jamin left his master and began the study of 
medicine, supporting himself in the meantime 
by teaching school. He made considerable 
progress in his new business, and was so suc- 
cessful as a teacher that he was invited to take 
charge of a school at Concord, then called 
Rumford. 

And it was here that events happened which 
entirely changed his life, and resulted in his de- 
voting his great powers to science. Shortly 
after his arrival at Concord he married the 
daughter of one of the most prominent men of 
the place, coming by this means into the pos- 
session of a large estate ; but hardly had he set- 
tled down to the business of managing his new 
property before he was compelled to leave the 



142 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

town as a fugitive. His marriage had taken 
place in October, 1774, and in November of the 
same year he was accused of sympathy with the 
English Government, and his life was threat- 
ened by his enraged townsmen, who were in 
the full tide of anger against the mother coun- 
try. 

Although at the trial afterward he was pro- 
nounced innocent of the charges laid against 
him, he never recovered the faith of his coun- 
trymen, and was always subject to their sus- 
picions, which were perhaps not wholly unjust 
when it is considered that in 1776 he went to 
London and took service under the British 
Government. 

He now began to make experiments in gun- 
powder, and on the making of cannon and the 
measurement of the velocities of bullets, and 
subsequently went on a cruise in order to give 
his theories a final test. He thus acquired a 
taste for military life, and after a short trip to 
America, he returned to Europe in 1783, hop- 
ing to serve in the Austrian campaign against 
the Turks. He was always so thoroughly in 



RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 143 

earnest that if Austria had begun the expected 
war it is probable that Thompson's career might 
have been wholly directed to military glory ; but, 
fortunately for science, he met about this time 
an old lady, the wife of one of the Austrian 
generals, whose influence led him to take other 
views of life, and convinced him that a life de- 
voted to the relief of mankind was of infinitely 
more value than any honor gained on the field 
of battle. 

Soon after this he was invited to Munich by 
the Duke of Bavaria, who urged him to enter 
his service, and from this time his life was one 
of ceaseless activity. Munich, in common with 
other European cities, was at that time subject- 
ed to the most incompetent public service, and 
the state of affairs in the capital was common 
throughout the country. 

Thompson was appointed colonel of a cavalry 
regiment, and aide-de-camp to the duke, who 
also gave him a palace to live in, and a military 
staff and corps of servants. But his magnifi- 
cent style of living, and the honor paid him as 
the friend and adviser of the duke, did not in 



144 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

the least interfere with the plans he had formed 
for the improvement of Bavaria. Thriftless- 
ness, abuse of power by the priesthood, discon- 
tent in the army, and neglect of the resources 
which might bring comfort and wealth were 
among the evils that Thompson set about find- 
ing remedies for, and his practical mind and 
great executive ability soon brought about the 
needed reformation. 

The discontent of the army had its source in 
real grievances. The soldiers were taken from 
their homes and scattered all over the country, 
leaving the fields untilled and the manufactur- 
ing industries destroyed while they were serv- 
ing in the army, which had such a demoralizing 
effect upon them as to unfit them for useful la- 
bor when their time of service had expired. 
Their pay was miserable, their quarters uncom- 
fortable, and the comfort of their families entire- 
ly overlooked. 

Thompson's remedy for this evil was radical 
and prompt. He had permanent garrisons 
made, so that the soldiers from the different 
districts might remain near their homes ; he re- 



RUMFORD, I7S3-I8I4. 145 

formed the drill and discipline, giving the sol- 
diers much more time at their own disposal, and 
this time could either be employed in the pub- 
lic works, or in manufacturing different articles 
from the raw material furnished them, or in the 
cultivation of the little gardens which were the 
property of every soldier, every one of the dif- 
ferent occupations being a source of added in- 
come to the privates, who had hitherto been 
looked upon only as the slaves of the officers. 

Besides this, the barracks were made clean 
within and without, the soldiers were better 
clothed and better fed, there were schools es- 
tablished for their children, and when it was ab- 
solutely necessary for the troops to be garri- 
soned at great distances from home, long fur- 
loughs were allowed, so that the men might 
attend to the agricultural and manufacturing 
interests that had sprung up. The effect of 
the new system was magical Discontent dis- 
appeared from the army, and the soldier was 
transformed from an indolent, fault-finding, and 
dissatisfied attache of the officer, to a self-sup- 
porting and self-respecting citizen. Little gar- 
10 



146 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

dens sprang up all over the country, where the 
soldier, clothed in the working suit furnished 
him by the State, might be seen planting seeds ; 
and many vegetables, among them the potato, 
which had hitherto been almost unknown in 
Bavaria, from this time became staple articles 
of food. The reform of the army was followed 
by another improvement of equal value. 

The evils of a standing army, the dearth of 
manufactures and the neglect of agriculture, 
had all combined to bring about a state of af- 
fairs among the working classes as demoraliz- 
ing as the condition of the soldiers. The whole 
of Bavaria was overrun with people who had no 
trade, no home, no duties, and, worst of all, 
who considered that they had a right to de- 
mand a living of their more self-respecting and 
independent neighbors. 

Beggars abounded everywhere, and society 
was divided into two factions, one representing 
the respectable element, and the other the dis- 
reputable hordes who roved about the country, 
feared on account of their numbers and defi- 
ant of all control. Not only did the natives 



RUMFORD, I7S3-I8I4. 147 

take advantage of this condition, but beggars 
swarmed in from adjoining countries and found 
cordial welcome from the depraved vagabonds 
who had learned that numbers meant power. 

Beggary was in fact but a kind of freeboot- 
ing, and the beggars considered themselves 
members of a respectable and worthy fraternity 
whose rights must be maintained. And they 
found this an easy matter, as their crimes had 
made them a terror to the country, and the 
civil authorities had come to look upon the case 
as almost hopeless. The highways were lined 
with beggars who demanded alms from all trav- 
ellers ; stores, houses, workshops, and churches 
were entered and money extorted by threats ; 
and the husbandman and merchant had alike 
learned to consider the beggar's portion as a 
necessary detail in the year's expenditures. 

In the cities things were even worse. In 
Munich the whole city was divided off into dis- 
tricts, each being under the control of certain 
bands, which were governed by a code of un- 
written but not the less stringent laws. This 
nuisance was attacked by Thompson in the 



148 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

same spirit which had actuated him in his work 
for the army. He declared that the govern- 
ment owed not only protection to the honest 
classes, but moral responsibilities to the beg- 
gars themselves, and he proposed to rid the 
country of begging by turning the offenders 
into self-supporting citizens. Such a proposal 
from one less practical and less powerful would 
have met with no response. But Thompson's 
regeneration of the army had proved his ad- 
ministrative powers, and the authorities of Mu- 
nich gladly promised him all the aid he could 
desire. 

He ordered the city to be divided into dis- 
tricts, and every dwelling, from palace to hovel, 
to be numbered. Each district was furnished 
with a priest, a physician, a surgeon, an apothe- 
cary, and one prominent citizen whose duties 
were to consist in looking after the respectable 
poor. Then a large building in one of the sub- 
urbs was fitted up with kitchen, refectory, work- 
shops, and machines suitable to the wants of 
the various trades. Over these were put mas- 
ter carpenters, smiths, turners, spinners, weav- 



RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 149 

ers, dyers, and so on, who were furnished with 
the necessary raw material for carrying on their 
different vocations. These were the teachers 
in the institution, which was called the Military 
School, and had for its object the reclaiming of 
the lowest orders to respectable modes of life. 
Besides the workshops, the building was fitted 
up as attractively as possible, and was made 
thoroughly neat and comfortable. 

As soon as the arrangements were com- 
pleted, the work of reformation was begun. 
New Year's Day was the great annual holiday 
of the beggars, who paraded the streets from 
morning till night, demanding alms in the most 
offensive manner, and making the thorough- 
fares almost impassable for the respectable 
classes. 

On the morning of this festival Thompson 
had soldiers stationed all over the city, and he, 
with the civil authorities, started out on the bold 
venture of capturing every beggar in the streets 
of Munich. They had hardly reached the 
street when a beggar approached Thompson 
and extended his hand for alms ; the decisive 



I50 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

moment had come, and with a firm but gentle 
denial, Thompson laid his hand on the man's 
shoulder and declared him under arrest. His 
example was immediately followed by his asso- 
ciates, and the raid was as thorough as unex- 
pected. Every vagabond in the streets was 
carried to the town-hall, and his name and resi- 
dence taken, and orders given for him to ap- 
pear next day at the Military School. 

The beggars were astounded, but showed a 
better spirit than had been hoped for ; the plan 
succeeded beyond the most sanguine expecta- 
tions of its originator, and within a week twen- 
ty-six hundred beggars had presented them- 
selves at the work-house and had started on a 
career of useful labor. Nothing can better il- 
lustrate the esteem which their benefactor was 
held in than the fact that, some time afterward, 
when these reclaimed outcasts learned of the 
critical illness of Thompson, they assembled in 
large numbers and, forming in a procession of 
hundreds, marched to the cathedral and offered 
prayers for his recovery. 

A year after the organization of the Military 



RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 151 

School, Thompson was made a Count of the 
Holy Roman Empire, in token of the inesti- 
mable services he had rendered to Bavaria ; he 
took the name of Rumford, from the little vil- 
lage in Massachusetts where he said that fort- 
une first smiled upon him. 

Count Rumford was constantly employed 
with some scheme to alleviate the condition of 
mankind, and Bavaria, under his guidance, was 
transformed as if by magic from a state of dis- 
order and shiftlessness to prosperity and peace. 
In the world of science Count Rumford occu- 
pies a distinguished position. He made many 
valuable contributions to physics, but is chiefly 
known by his discoveries in heat. 

Various theories had been held as to the 
origin and nature of heat, and the ancients 
had many curious ideas in regard to this sub- 
ject. 

Up to the end of the eighteenth century the 
most generally accepted theory of heat was that 
it was a kind of subtle fluid which could enter 
the pores of bodies, and then be squeezed out 
again by compression. This fluid was called 



152 RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 

caloric, and was supposed — by its capability of 
combining with certain substances — to explain 
by its actions all the phenomena of heat. 

Count Rumford, in opposition to this theory, 
asserted that heat was a form of motion, and 
that all its phenomena could be accounted for 
on this supposition alone. 

This belief, like many other scientific creeds, 
was partly arrived at by accident. While watch- 
ing one day the boring of a large brass cannon 
in the arsenal, he was struck by the great quan- 
tity of heat that was produced by the pressure 
of the boring bar against the brass. He imme- 
diately began some simple experiments with the 
filings to see how the heat might be accounted 
for, and the results led him to the conjecture 
that the thing known as heat was really a form 
of motion. 

He made a test-experiment in the presence 
of some of his friends, causing a brass cylinder 
to be placed inside a wooden machine which 
contained a quantity of water, and then having 
the cylinder revolve against a steel borer. At 
the end of two hours the spectators were aston- 



RUMFORD, 1753-1814. 153 

ished to see the water boil, although there was 
no fire near. 

It had been known from the earliest times 
that friction would produce heat ; but it 
was also generally supposed that the friction 
brought out the caloric that was latent or hid- 
den in the bodies that were rubbed together. 
Rumford claimed, on the contrary, that if this 
were so there would be a limit to the amount of 
heat that could be obtained by the friction of 
two bodies, just as it is impossible to squeeze 
more than a certain amount of water out of a 
sponge ; and as he had shown by experiment 
that there was no limit to the amount of heat 
that could be obtained by friction, he concluded 
that heat was not a substance which bodies con- 
tain as a sponge holds water, but that it was it- 
self simply a form of motion. According to this 
view a hot body differs from a cold one in that 
its particles are in more vigorous motion. 

This is called the dynamic theory of heat, 
and it is this contribution to scientific discovery 
that has connected Count Rumford with other 
great physicists. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CUVIER AND THE ANIMALS OF THE PAST, 
I769-1832. 

The kingdom of science may be likened to a 
meadow full of children at play. One child 
plucks flowers, another gathers the pebbles that 
lie on the shores of the little brook, a third 
watches the waves bearing away the bits of 
moss from the woods beyond, and a fourth 
listens to the songs of the birds, or gazes at the 
clouds floating in the blue sky far above him. 

If a child were asked why he plucked flowers 
instead of listening to the voices of the birds, 
he could not tell, and if his companion were or- 
dered to throw away his pebbles and gather 
the drifting moss, he would only stare in won- 
der. 

And so it is in the great w r orld of nature 
when, instead of children at play, we find earn- 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 1 55 

est men giving all their energies of mind and 
soul to some special calling. 

To one it seems best to count the flowers of 
the field, to another to number the stars of 
heaven, a third studies the hidden forces of nat- 
ure, and a fourth can find satisfaction only in 
the presence of that life which so closely re- 
sembles his own. 

And if the botanist were asked why he did 
not choose astronomy as his calling, he could 
not tell, and if the physicist were compelled to 
turn zoologist it would seem to him as if study 
had lost its charm. 

And the progress of science corresponds to 
these individual tastes and exertions. One a^e 
is distinguished for one thing, and another for 
another, and it would be as difficult to find a 
reason for this as to know why still another 
period will be marked by widely different char- 
acteristics. 

Thus we find that in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century, scientists were engrossed by 
the study of the secret forces of nature — light, 
heat, electricity, and chemistry — and the mys- 



156 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

terious laws of plant life ; studies which in 
another hundred years were destined to bear a 
golden harvest for science. 

By the latter part of the eighteenth century 
the point of view had shifted a little, and other 
subjects began to occupy scientists; the ques- 
tions of the antiquity of the earth, its formation, 
and the connection between the past and the 
present began to be studied by one class of 
minds though another class was still working at 
the problems of the hidden forces of nature, and 
among the new subjects of study we find pale- 
ontology — the study of the remains of the plants 
and animals which lived in remote ages ; these 
remains are called fossils, and their study has 
thrown much light on the subject of the earth's 
formation, and the development of life. 

Chief among the students of nature who 
gave themselves to this study we find George 
Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert Cuvier, 
who was born in the village of Montbeliard, in 
France, August 23, 1769. 

Montbeliard is beautifully situated on the 
River Allar, with a background of wooded 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. I 57 

hills, and in the midst of sunny slopes covered 
with choice vineyards. 

On the rocky heights above the village stand 
the two ancient castles which were the pride of 
Montbeliard in the feudal days, and everywhere 
throughout the valley bloom the roses and wild 
flowers that give the place one of its brightest 
charms. 

It is not strange that amid such congenial 
surroundings the little Cuvier early showed a 
great love for nature, and the influence of his 
mother, who was his first teacher, aided him in 
forming those habits of keen observation and 
diligent study which served him so well in 
after-life. 

He was a delicate child, and much of his 
mother's time was given to the care of his 
health ; but still the little lad had learned to 
read by the time he was four years old, and in 
his walks and excursions around Montbeliard 
he saw much that added to the small store of 
knowledge, which he gained daily at the little 
school he attended. When school-hours were 
over, and the out-door exercise of the day had 



I 58 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

ended, then came little drawing-lessons from 
his mother, which trained his eye and strength- 
ened his memory, and led him to notice accu- 
rately all things around him. 

The shape of the clouds that hung over the 
low hills, the grouping of the shrubs in the 
home garden, the outlines of the old chateaux 
on the heights above, and the interlacing 
branches of the leafless trees in winter, all 
played their part in the training of the bright 
young eyes that looked so eagerly out on the 
world and found everything in it interesting. 

Every new object was at once made a sub- 
ject for drawing ; and even this did not satisfy 
the child, who often cut out little pasteboard 
models of anything that pleased him, and de- 
lighted in reproducing whatever seemed diffi- 
cult or mysterious to his companions. 

This faculty was shown at a very early age, 
for when only six years old he astonished his 
friends by his explanation of the tricks of a jug- 
gler who was passing through the village, and 
whose various marvels of sleight of hand were 
easily understood by Cuvier, who reproduced 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. I 59 

them in pasteboard, and explained their mys- 
teries away in the most satisfactory manner. 

At ten years of age Cuvier entered the Gym- 
nasium, or high school, of Montbeliard, where 
he soon became known as a diligent pupil in 
history and mathematics, never tiring of the 
latter and able, by means of his well-trained 
memory, to make even the driest facts of his- 
tory easy learning. 

Here his love for drawing still continued, and 
he delighted in making tiny maps of the places 
about which they were studying, and giving 
them to his companions, while the new subjects 
that were constantly being brought into his les- 
sons all served to excite his imagination and 
develop still further his power of illustration. 

At this time, too, his fondness for reading in- 
creased to such an extent that his mother had 
frequently to take his books away from him and 
force him to seek recreation. And although 
this always seemed hard at first, yet, a half- 
hour after he had been sent out, no one would 
have recognized the pale little student in the 
merry lad whose laugh and shout rang loudest 



l6o GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

and longest. For whatever came to the boy- 
he put his whole soul into ; whether it was learn- 
ing long lists of the names of dead kings and 
statesmen, or training a company of boys in 
military tactics, or rambling through the woods 
and fields in company with his mother, it was 
sure to engage his deepest attention at the 
time, and he would become so absorbed that it 
seemed impossible to imagine that he could 
ever be interested in anything else. 

It was while a pupil at the Gymnasium that 
Cuvier first showed his great love for the study 
of nature. Wandering one day in the school- 
library, he came across a copy of the works of 
the Swedish physician Gesner, and from that 
moment a new world was open to the studious 
boy. 

Nothing hereafter seemed of any importance 
as compared with the delights of natural his- 
tory, and long hours were spent in poring 
over the fascinating pages ; and as about the 
same time the works of the celebrated natural- 
ist Buffon fell into his hands, the first impres- 
sion was deepened, and he became still more 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. l6l 

eager after the knowledge that had grown so 
interesting. 

He read and reread the glowing descrip- 
tions, copying them out from the printed page, 
and coloring them with paint, or pieces of silk ; 
and so diligent was he in studying, both from 
books and nature, that by the time he was 
twelve years old he was as familiar with birds 
and quadrupeds as any first-class naturalist. 

Cuvier's fine scholarship at the Gymnasium 
could not fail to bring him into notice, and at 
fourteen he was appointed a student in the 
University of Stuttgart by Duke Charles of 
Wurtemberg, who had taken such a fancy to 
him that he offered to pay his expenses. 

This offer was gratefully accepted, and soon 
after the young student set out for his new 
home ; the journey was made in a carriage and 
occupied three days, which were rendered in- 
tolerable to Cuvier by his travelling companions, 
who spoke German incessantly, of which he 
understood not a word, and this circumstance, 
added to the homesickness which beset him, 

made such an impression upon him that he used 
11 



l62 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

to say in after-years that he could never think 
of the time without a shudder. 

But life assumed a pleasanter aspect when 
he was once settled in the university, for his 
new teachers at once recognized his unusual 
talents and placed him in the classes that would 
best develop them. 

And Cuvier's progress did not disappoint 
their faith. Before he had been at the univer- 
sity a year he took the prize for German, and 
his advancement in his other studies proved 
equally satisfactory. 

Natural history still kept its old charm for 
him, and he found that his new home furnished 
rare advantages for the study of his favorite 
subject. In the libraries he found editions of 
the works of Linnaeus and other naturalists, 
which he read over and over again, compar- 
ing their descriptions w r ith the world of nat- 
ure around him, and frequently illustrating the 
printed page with his pencil. 

But delightful as he found his favorite au- 
thors, there was a pleasure even greater in 
rambling over the surrounding country and dis- 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 163 

covering its resources, and, as usual, he turned 
these excursions to the most practical uses. 
Every leaf and flower held for him a deep 
meaning, and so ardent was he in making col- 
lections that his herbarium soon became famous 
through the university, his specimens of plants 
including many that had hitherto not been 
known to exist near Stuttgart. His drawings 
of insects and birds exceeded in number and 
excellence any that had ever been made be- 
fore by the students, and he kept constantly 
in his room numbers of living insects, feeding 
them and watching their habits with the most 
patient interest, never tiring of the wonderful 
study, and learning daily new facts about their 
curious life that proved of great advantage to 
him later on. 

And thus his student life at Stuttgart passed 
pleasantly and profitably for three years. Hon- 
ors and prizes were showered upon him, and 
the foundations laid for the earnest and fruitful 
life-work that he was soon to undertake. 

At the end of the third year it became neces- 
sary for Cuvier to earn his own living, and he 



164 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

accepted the position of tutor to the son of a 
gentleman living at Caen in Normandy. This 
step seemed a very unwise one to his univer- 
sity friends, who prophesied gloomily that the 
drudgery of teaching would soon crush out any 
higher aspirations, for Stuttgart was proud of 
her young prodigy and desirous of seeing him 
in some position that would enable him to con- 
tinue his studies. 

But circumstances and place made very little 
difference to the young naturalist, and Nor- 
mandy furnished him with the same material 
for study that Wiirtemberg had offered. The 
world of nature was still around him, and the 
sound of the waves dashing against the coast 
became as great an inspiration as had been the 
groves and fields around Stuttgart. He at 
once turned his attention to the study of marine 
animals, and had the necessary books been at 
hand his pursuit of this branch of natural history 
would soon have yielded the most satisfactory 
results ; but away from libraries, and with no 
one to give him needed information, he was 
obliged to leave this study incomplete. 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 165 

He consoled himself somewhat by making 
drawings of a magnificent collection of Medi- 
terranean fishes owned by a gentleman of 
Caen, and although he was debarred from en- 
tering into an exhaustive study of fishes, and 
the absence of books proved a serious obsta- 
cle, yet it was while he was a tutor at Caen 
that Cuvier entered upon that particular branch 
of study that was destined to make him famous. 
Up to the latter part of the seventeenth century 
the attention of naturalists had been directed 
more particularly toward the study of plants, as 
these could be more easily procured, preserved 
with less expense, and needed smaller space for 
collections than any other object. Thus it 
happened that botany had profited more than 
any other branch of natural history by the 
works of illustrious naturalists, and was, com- 
paratively speaking, far in advance of the 
others. 

Linnaeus and other investigators had studied 
animals with much painstaking interest, but 
their conclusions were far from being satisfac- 
tory, and later naturalists found great difficulty 



l66 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

in reconciling new specimens with their as- 
signed places in the accepted systems. 

Linnaeus and his followers divided the ani- 
mal kingdom into six classes, founded princi- 
pally upon the breathing and blood, the entire 
zoological arrangement resting upon observa- 
tion alone. 

But this method had so much in it that was 
objectionable, that from time to time new sys- 
tems were dreamed of and naturalists were con- 
tinually trying to solve the difficulty. But it 
was reserved for Cuvier to advance a new 
theory so startling, and yet so conclusive, that 
in a few years it commanded the admiration of 
the civilized world. 

Examining one day some fossils that had 
been dug up near Fecamp, the thought came 
to him of comparing fossil with recent species, 
and this little circumstance led eventually to 
the establishment of that great system which 
was to supersede all others. 

Filled with his new idea Cuvier at once pro- 
ceeded to make anatomical studies of the mol- 
lusks, and careful comparisons proved to him 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 167 

that a system based upon the internal structure 
of animals would solve all the difficulties that 
had hitherto been considered insurmountable. 

The results of his investigations were care- 
fully written out, and although he apologized 
for his work by saying that it doubtless con- 
tained nothing that was not known to the nat- 
uralists of Paris who had the benefit of books 
and collections that were denied him, yet it was 
soon found that the manuscripts were full of 
new facts, and suggestions superior to any that 
had yet appeared. 

It was the custom of Cuvier at this time to 
attend the meetings of a little society that had 
for its object the discussion of agricultural top- 
ics, and here he met M. Tessier, who had 
sought in Normandy safety from the horrors of 
the French Revolution. • M. Tessier was an 
author on agricultural subjects, and displayed 
so much knowledge in his arguments that Cu- 
vier recognized him, although he was living 
under an assumed name, and was supposed to 
be a surgeon in a regiment quartered near 
Caen. The fugitive was preparing to give 



l68 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

himself up for lost upon his recognition ; but 
Cuvier assured him that he would, on the con- 
trary, only be the object of the greatest solici- 
tude, and thus a friendship was begun which 
brought the most lasting benefits to the young 
tutor. 

M. Tessier was astonished at his learning, 
and familiarity with comparative anatomy, and it 
was through his influence that Cuvier first be- 
came known to the savants of France. He 
wrote to his friends that Cuvier was " a violet 
hid in the grass," and that nothing could re- 
dound more to their credit than to draw him 
from his retreat and give the world the benefit 
of his unusual talents. In consequence of this 
interest Cuvier' s merits were at once recognized 
by some of the most learned men in Europe ; 
his articles on the mollusks were published in 
the leading scientific journals, and he speedily 
became known as one of whom great things 
might be expected. His new friends did not 
allow their interest to flag, and in 1795 he was 
called to Paris and given a professorship. 

He now devoted himself more eagerly than 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 169 

ever to his scientific pursuits, and carried the 
study of comparative anatomy far beyond any 
point that it had before reached, his work in this 
department never ceasing through his entire 
life. 

Many other branches of knowledge com- 
manded his attention and were enriched by his 
toil, but everything was made subservient to the 
great principle which he hoped to establish by 
means of comparative anatomy. Fossils were 
brought to him from all parts of the world, and 
he gave his days and nights to the task of com- 
paring them with the bones of recent animals, 
and giving them their place in the series of 
beings. 

His general plan was to take the best known 
living species, examine their bones, describe the 
countries they inhabit and the number of kinds, 
and then compare them with the bones found 
in the fossil state. 

Many interesting discoveries were made in 
this connection, and Cuvier's investigations de- 
stroyed many of the illusions that had always 
hung around the subject. From the most 



I70 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

ancient times there had been a popular belief 
in the finding of the tombs of giants, and in 
many places there were kept collections of 
enormous bones that were said to belong to 
the human species ; and even in the time of 
Cuvier this belief, strengthened by the ever- 
present love of the marvellous, still held sway 
over people's minds and often gave rise to 
the most absurd stories. Giants' bones were 
continually being discovered in all places, and 
many cities counted them among their most 
interesting treasures. In Switzerland they 
claimed to have found relics of enormous giants 
that lived before the deluge, and in France, a 
sepulchre thirty feet long was discovered in- 
scribed with the name of one of the kings of the 
Cimbri. The city of Lucerne had stamped on 
its coat-of-arms the figures of some giants, nine- 
teen feet long, that had been accidentally found, 
and exaggerated accounts of the discovery of 
similar bones elsewhere were received with the 
most credulous wonder. 

But Cuvier visited England, Holland, Ger- 
many, Italy, and other places where the sup- 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 171 

posed human fossils had been found, and proved 
beyond the shadow of a doubt that the bones 
belonged to the elephants that had wandered 
over those countries in the pre-historic ages. 
And although the wonder-lovers were loath to 
give up their giants, they were obliged to ac- 
cept such strong proof as Cuvier offered, and 
turn their attention to something else. Then 
came marvellous stories of the monster beasts 
of the New World, which was as yet almost an 
unknown country to naturalists, and its vast 
plains and immense forests were speedily peo- 
pled with gigantic quadrupeds frightful in ap- 
pearance and combining the worst features of 
the elephant and rhinoceros. 

But again Cuvier came forward and demon- 
strated that the fossil remains of the American 
mammoth and mastodon proved conclusively 
that the conditions for their existence no longer 
remained, and that their presence would be as 
foreign to the new world as that of the hippo- 
potamus or zebra. Many only listened curi- 
ously to these revelations, but the scientific 
world was delighted, and accepted with enthu- 



172 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

siasm the words of the man who could thus 
recreate the ancient world and bring before 
their minds its mighty forests and endless 
plains, and bottomless marshes, with its gi- 
gantic inhabitants roving in peaceful bands, or 
fighting their fierce battles, unseen by human 
eye, and yet leaving such unimpeachable rec- 
ords behind that those long distant ages 
seemed almost as near as the days of some by- 
gone summer. 

And to one ignorant of such subjects the con- 
clusions reached could only seem marvellous, 
for how stupendous seemed that knowledge of 
the laws of organization which could reconstruct 
an entire animal from the fragments of bones 
scattered through the layers of the earth, and 
assign to it its place in history ; reproducing 
again its long-vanished home, and describing 
its habits and even its tastes, till the dim past 
was filled with a long procession of living fig- 
ures, each distinct and interesting, and con- 
nected by indissoluble links with the present, 
from the mighty mammoth that tramped awk- 
wardly through the wilderness, and the great 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 173 

winged birds that brooded in gigantic palms, 
or circled over sombre northern plains, to the 
fleet-footed quadrupeds that now dart in and 
out through the sunlit paths of the forest, or 
the robins that sing in the white blossoms of 
the cherry-trees in the springtime. 

The publication of the work on fossils at once 
led to world-wide fame, and it was immediately 
seen that Cuvier held the key to the mystery 
that had puzzled so many. For although it had 
previously been tried to make use of fossils in 
the study of geology, yet to Cuvier alone be- 
longs the credit of developing the idea to an 
extent undreamed of by the originators, and 
of applying the same principle to the study of 
animals, and by combining zoology and anat- 
omy found a system of classification that would 
rest upon incontrovertible principles. 

He abandoned the Linnsean system, and di- 
vided the animal kingdom into four classes — 
vertebrates, or back-boned animals, articulates, 
or jointed animals, mollusks, or soft bodied 
animals, and radiates, or star-shaped animals — 
claiming that there existed in nature only four 



1/4 GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 

principal forms or general plans, according to 
which all animals were moulded. The whole 
animal kingdom was reviewed in support of this 
theory, his anatomical studies embracing every 
variety of species known, and the results were 
embodied in his great works on " Fossil Re- 
mains " and on the " Distribution of the Ani- 
mal Kingdom." 

His conclusions showed such minute investi- 
gation, careful research, and wide knowledge, 
that there could be no hesitation about the 
acceptance of his theory by the scientific world, 
and in a short time it had gained such favor 
as to supersede all others. The materials for 
the founding of the new system naturally in- 
cluded a wide range of study, and Cuvier was 
the author of innumerable volumes embracing 
works on natural history. 

He was, besides, appointed to various posi- 
tions of honor in the Government from time to 
time, and was charged with many offices relat- 
ing to educational matters, and held important 
places of trust during the unsettled years that 
followed the days of '93. 



GEORGE CUVIER, 1769-1832. 175 

His early manhood was passed during the 
terrible struggle of the First Revolution ; he 
lived under Louis XVI., the Directory, Napo- 
leon, Louis XVIII. , the Second Revolution, 
Charles X., and was made a peer of France by 
Louis Philippe, but through all these changes 
he kept the great purpose of his life steadily 
in view, and never wavered in his determina- 
tion to place zoology upon a firmer foundation 
than he had found it. 

That his efforts were deservedly crowned 
with success was the greatest satisfaction of 
his life, and he felt amply rewarded for all his 
unwearied toil by the assurance that he had 
brought to the world a gift by means of which 
science was brought to the threshold of a new 
epoch, more brilliant than any it had yet seen. 



CHAPTER IX. 

HUMBOLDT AND NATURE IN THE NEW WORLD, 
I769-1859. 

Alexander von Humboldt, the celebrated nat- 
uralist, was born in Berlin, September 14, 1769, 
one month after the birth of Cuvier. The von 
Humboldts were an ancient noble family of 
Germany, and at the time of Alexander's birth 
possessed large estates and occupied a promi- 
nent position, and the future scientist thus 
started in life with the prestige of wealth and 
influence, circumstances unusually fortunate for 
him since he was a very delicate child. 

One of the family possessions was the ancient 
castle of Tegel, situated a short distance from 
Berlin, and at this place Alexander spent the 
greater part of his childhood and youth. 

The castle enjoyed the distinction of having 
more than one interesting legend connected 




ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1 769- 1 8 59. 1 77 

with its history, and the young Alexander and 
his elder brother William found great delight 
in weaving strange romances about the place 
which possessed such a mysterious charm. 

The country about Tegel was extremely 
beautiful, and the castle commanded a view of 
gardens, lakes, promenades, forests, and towns 
in the distance, while near by were the pictu- 
resque fortress of Spandau, situated on the 
southern shore of Tegel Lake, and the fine 
grove reaching on the other side toward Ber- 
lin. 

Major Humboldt, the father of the two boys, 
was renowned for his hospitality, and the castle 
was the scene of almost uninterrupted festivi- 
ties, the visitors including princes, statesmen, 
and scholars in their number, and thus the 
Humboldt children were from their earliest 
years thrown into the society of some of the 
most distinguished men of the age. 

When he was about ten years of age Alex- 
ander saw his father receive Goethe as a guest, 
the visitor little dreaming that the two fun-lov- 
ing boys who shyly greeted him wo^d one day 
12 



178 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

become his chosen friends, equally esteemed 
for their nobility of character and their intel- 
lectual gifts ; while the children themselves, to 
whom as yet no dreams of fame had come, 
thought only of the present moment, and asso- 
ciated their father's guest only with the won- 
derful stories of which he was the author, and 
which had so speedily won for him so great a 
renown. 

But such opportunities for seeing the most 
learned men of the day could not fail to make 
an impression upon the minds of the brothers, 
and they early imbibed the idea that intellectual 
greatness and individual exertion took the pre- 
cedence of wealth or rank in the opinion of the 
truly wise ; and thus although a fortunate fut- 
ure might await them inview of their father's 
position, they early understood that higher dis- 
tinction could only come from their own earnest 
effort. 

This impression was deepened by the influ- 
ence of the man whom their father had chosen 
for their teacher, Heinrich Campe, one of the 
foremost thinkers of the time. 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 179 

Campe was a devoted advocate of the new 
methods of teaching then being* introduced into 
Germany, and found his views warmly sup- 
ported by Major Humboldt, who desired his 
children to have the benefit of the advanced 
school of thought. And it thus happened that 
the Humboldt brothers had from the beginning 
the advantage of superior instruction, and had 
nothing to unlearn when after-years decided 
their career, 

Campe, following the new method, trained 
his pupils not only in the exercises which de- 
velop the memory, but led their minds into new 
channels, and awakened an interest in the 
world at large which only increased as the 
years went on. It was to him that the boys 
owed their first impressions of foreign coun- 
tries, and thus from the beginning of their edu- 
cation they were led to take an interest in mat- 
ters quite outside their own immediate sphere. 
Campe desired them to become students, not 
only of the dead languages and mathematics, 
but of men, manners, and the world in general, 
and this wish was ardently fulfilled by his pupils. 



l8o ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

Although Campe only remained at Tegel 
two years, his influence was never lost, and ex- 
tended over the whole lives of his pupils. He 
was the editor of an edition of " Robinson 
Crusoe/' and made this fascinating volume the 
groundwork of an interest in foreign countries 
which only increased with time. 

All the old legends which hung around the 
castle of Tegel failed to excite their imagina- 
tion to the degree of wonder wrought by the 
marvellous history of the hero of the desert 
island ; and the familiar fairies, spirits, and 
genii of their native forests lost their charm in 
the presence of the actual living Crusoe, whose 
bravery they might emulate and whose exam- 
ple they both determined to follow. 

Thenceforth desert islands possessed a magi- 
cal fascination, and Alexander avowed his in- 
tention of starting for the South Sea at the ear- 
liest opportunity. Books of travel were read 
with an interest never felt before, and the tales 
of the travellers who now and then visited the 
castle were listened to with absorbing atten- 
tion ; and the purpose excited by these events 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. l8l 

was clung to by i\lexander with a tenacity that 
was the more remarkable considering that his 
delicate health seemed to forbid the possibility 
of his high hopes ever being realized. 

When Campe left the castle to accept an im- 
portant position elsewhere, he was succeeded 
by Christian Kunth, whose influence upon his 
pupils was as beneficial as that of his prede- 
cessor, and who remained their lifelong friend. 

The plan of Campe to awaken a love for uni- 
versal knowledge was also pursued by Kunth, 
and the Humboldts were thus able to continue 
their methods of study without any serious in- 
terruption. Kunth's interest for the welfare of 
the boys, and his influence over them, contin- 
ued even when they came to receive instruction 
from special teachers ; and thus when Alexan- 
der began taking lessons in botany at the age 
of fourteen, of an official who lived near 
Tegel, it was Kunth who led his mind to 
contemplate the study only as a part of the 
great system of nature, and kept before him 
the fact that botany was important not because 
of itself, but because it led to a better under- 



182 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 



standing of the universality of the laws of crea- 
tion. 

Thus the necessity of grasping the principle 
that underlies any collection of facts was early 
instilled in the mind of the future naturalist, and 
while learning the Linnaean system of classifi- 
cation he also learned that this knowledge was 
but a step toward the goal desired by the true 
seeker after wisdom. 

During the years of Kunth's tutorship the 
Humboldts spent the time partly in Berlin and 
partly at Tegel, giving the strongest evidence, 
even in their boyhood, of the diversity of their 
tastes, William devoting himself principally 
to the classical studies, while Alexander expe- 
rienced an ever-increasing love for natural his- 
tory. 

Great was the delight of the younger broth- 
er, therefore, when the choice of a university 
fell upon Gottingen, for there lived the cele- 
brated Blumenbach, whose knowledge of the 
natural sciences would be of priceless value to 
the eager student, and it was at Gottingen also 
that Alexander formed an intimacy that proved 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 183 

of more than usual importance. This was his 
friendship with George Forster, a son-in-law 
of one of the teachers in the university, and a 
man of fine attainments and unusual originality. ■ 

Forster had been one of the companions of 
Captain Cook in his famous voyage around 
the world, and this fact at once made him an 
interesting personage in the eyes of Alexander. 
Forster was equally attracted toward his ardent 
young admirer, whose tastes were so congen- 
ial, and willingly gave him the benefit of his 
larger experience. All of Alexander's old en- 
thusiasm for desert islands and foreign travel 
was aroused by the recital of his friend's won- 
derful adventures, and as Forster was a great 
student of natural history his story had the 
effect of rousing in the mind of his hearer an 
earnestness of purpose that was invaluable in 
its influence upon his character. 

Hereafter a journey across the sea and into 
unknown lands was not only looked upon as an 
opportunity for personal excitement and adven- 
ture, but was viewed as a serious undertaking, 
containing possibilities for grave work in 



1 84 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1 769-1859. 

science, and, in fact, with his usual good for- 
tune, Alexander had, on his arrival at Gottin- 
gen, fallen in with the very man who of all 
others could best serve him in his preparation 
for the serious business of life. From this time 
there was never any question in his mind as to 
the nature of his work. 

His friendship with Forster but strengthened 
the already half-formed resolution to become a 
man of travel and science, and the succeeding 
years only made this purpose more definite. 
Works of travel, geography, languages, and 
natural science were hereafter studied with a 
view to his future work, and he ardently longed 
for the time when he might begin his life of 
travel. 

The Humboldts left the university of Gottin- 
gen after a two years' course, and a few months 
later Alexander, being then in his twenty-third 
year, started with Forster on his first scientific 
journey. This was an expedition down the 
Rhine, through Holland, and over to England, 
and resulted in the publication of an original 
theory of the formation of the rocks of the 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 185 

Rhine. This journey was chiefly important be- 
cause it roused in Humboldt a greater delight 
in mineralogical studies, and led to a decision 
to make mining his particular business. 

He therefore went to Freiburg the following 
year to study the metallurgical sciences, and 
made such rapid progress that in less than two 
years he was appointed superintendent of the 
mines in Franconia, with the commission to re- 
model the plan of the working of the mines 
according- to his own ideas. 

While in this position Humboldt made many 
interesting experiments on the chemistry of 
metals, and also contributed toward the discus- 
sion that was then going on between geologists 
as to the formation of the earth. Although he 
was so young a man his views were received 
with attention by the older scientists, and were 
indeed so accurate as to be incorporated into his 
later works. 

The plan for a great journey to America was 
all this time maturing in his mind. America 
was still almost a new world to Europeans 
as regarded the knowledge of its mineral re- 



l86 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

sources, vegetation, and animal life, and it 
was Humboldt's desire to be the Columbus 
who should open this unknown territory to 
the scientific world. North America, with the 
exception of a narrow portion lying along the 
Atlantic coast, was still practically unknown 
even by the inhabitants of the oldest settle- 
ments, and South America was even more a 
land of myths and ignorant wonder. The mines 
of Mexico and Peru, the vast profits of which 
had enriched the Spanish crown in the early 
days of American exploration, were still regard- 
ed as objects of interest whose reality could 
not be doubted, but the most indefinite and ex- 
traordinary accounts were in circulation as to 
the rest of the continent. 

Cuvier, by his scientific analysis of American 
fossils, had exploded some of the more extrava- 
gant theories of the monstrous beasts and birds 
that were supposed to inhabit the tropical for- 
ests, but in other departments the greatest 
ignorance still prevailed. Marvellous stories 
were told of the forests, with their strange in- 
habitants, and of the great rivers, and plains, 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 187 

and the lofty mountain ranges, and volcanoes ; 
but the exaggerated accounts brought by chance 
travellers to these regions were useless for 
scientific purposes, and Humboldt resolved to 
visit those remote countries, view their wonders 
with his own eyes, and then give to the world 
a faithful record of his travels, in the hope that 
such a contribution would be of value to the 
students of natural history. 

Having this idea in his mind he made several 
short trips to the Alps, Poland, and Italy, which, 
were designed as a preparation for his great 
journey, and devoted his entire time to the ac- 
curate study of geological formations and sim- 
ilar scientific matters, in order that he might 
be able to compare his experiences in Europe 
with his explorations in America. He also de- 
voted much care to the testing of instruments 
and other practical matters, with a view to mak- 
ing his outfit as complete as possible. 

But many things hindered Humboldt in the 
carrying out of his plans, and years passed and 
1799 found him still on European soil, detained 
by one thing and another, but principally by 



1 88 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

the war then waging, which resulted in the 
blockade of many ports, and made it almost im- 
possible for a vessel to sail. 

But finally the long-deferred hope was real- 
ized, and in June, 1799, he left Spain in a ship 
which was able to leave port in consequence of 
a severe storm which caused the blockading 
vessels to put out to sea, bearing with him the 
royal permission to explore all the Spanish pos- 
sessions in America, without condition or hin- 
drance. 

They sailed first for the Canary Islands, and 
a few days after starting, Humboldt enjoyed 
the first surprise of the traveller, in the appear- 
ance of immense numbers of jelly-fish which 
covered the sea in all directions, their colors 
forming a striking contrast to the waters. 

At Santa Cruz they landed and ascended the 
peak of Teneriffe, and here Humboldt made 
some observations on its geological formation, 
which were interesting as foreshadowing the 
nature of his work in tropical America. It was 
at this time that Humboldt was first led to ob- 
serve that mountains and rocks resemble one 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 1 89 

another, though separated by oceans and seas, 
while on the contrary, the plants and animals of 
distant places vary with climate and position. 

From the Canaries they proceeded toward 
the Cape Verd Islands, and thence westward, 
the usual route of the mariner, and in less than 
a month from the time of sailing Humboldt saw 
the Southern Cross blazing in the sky at night, 
and knew that he had indeed left Europe be- 
hind, and was entering those regions of romance 
and wonder that it had been the dream of his 
life to see. 

The voyage across the Atlantic was unevent- 
ful, but not monotonous, as it was Humboldt's 
first experience as an ocean traveller, and the 
ever-changing aspect of the sea, the condition 
of the atmosphere, the direction and force of 
the winds, together with other phenomena, 
proved a fruitful source of interest. 

In this connection he noticed the difference 
between the temperature of the air on the land 
and on the sea, in the same season and latitude, 
and made some very interesting observations 
on the blueness of the sky, using an instrument 



I90 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1 769-1859. 

which measured the intensity of the color ; his 
work in this regard possessing a peculiar value, 
as he was the first traveller who made scientific 
observations of the sky in the region of equal 
days and nights. 

He also measured the color of the sea, find- 
ing that it often changed from blue to green or 
gray, when there was no apparent change in 
the atmosphere, and noticing that, contrary to 
the usually accepted belief, the sea did not re- 
flect the sky, retaining its vivid azure tint often 
when the sky was entirely covered with white 
clouds. 

Humboldt also made some observations on 
the attraction of the magnetic needle in those 
latitudes, and thus the voyage of forty-one days 
was made the beginning of his actual work. 

He had intended going directly to the West 
Indies, but the breaking out of an epidemic 
on the ship induced him and his travelling 
companion, Bompland, to land on the coast 
of Venezuela, and led him to decide upon visit- 
ing the coasts of South America before proceed- 
ing further. 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 191 

They landed at Cumana, a port guarded by 
a fortress whose ramparts were formed of a 
thicket of prickly cactus, which was in turn sur- 
rounded by a moat in which living crocodiles 
served as an effective means of defence. This 
original fortification was a source of immense 
interest to Humboldt, as illustrating the ingenu- 
ity of the human mind in adapting to its uses 
the very things which were by their nature in- 
imical to man ; and as Cumana had been visit- 
ed by an earthquake the year before, the traces 
of which still remained, Humboldt immedi- 
ately upon landing found himself in a situa- 
tion well calculated to enliven his scientific 
interest. 

The neighborhood of Cumana was equally 
full of suggestion, and after making a study of 
the volcanic soil of the place, and of the history 
of the earthquakes, in order to find, if possible, 
some law which governed the recurrence of 
shocks, he started out on his first scientific ex- 
cursion in the New World. 

This was an expedition to the island of Araya, 
formerly famous for its pearl fisheries and slave 



192 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

trade, and was not remarkable except as the 
beginning of a series of small excursions around 
Cumana, which were fruitful in suggestion, and 
of much use in preparing the travellers for 
longer and more important South American 
journeys. The visit to Araya occurred in 
August, 1799, and from that time till the follow- 
ing November, Humboldt made Cumana the 
base of his operations. 

During this time he visited many of the old 
Spanish missions, and was able to study some- 
thing of the life of the Mission Indians, who 
lived in little huts surrounded by sugar-cane, 
maize, and fruit trees. 

The impression that the rich tropical vegeta- 
tion made upon Humboldt was most vivid, and 
made him realize, as nothing else could have 
done, that he was indeed in a strange land. He 
now saw growing in the greatest profusion the 
trees, shrubs, flowers, and fruits that could only 
be found in rare botanical collections in Europe, 
and he and Bompland immediately set about 
gathering specimens with a zeal that was aston- 
ishing to the monks at the Missions, who looked 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 193 

upon their dried plants and scientific instru- 
ments with a gentle wonder not entirely un- 
mixed with a little disdain, that human beings 
should find interest in such unimportant things. 
It was during his stay in this region that 
Humboldt visited some Indians who prophe- 
sied earthquake shocks in the near future, a 
prophecy which was fulfilled after his return to 
Cumana. For nearly a month before the earth- 
quake occurred Humboldt was able to study 
the phenomena which preceded it. At first the 
sky was covered for a few minutes at night 
with a reddish mist, then the mist grew denser, 
the air became hotter and hotter, the sea 
breezes failed, and the sky grew flame-colored. 
The inhabitants grew nervous and fearful as 
these alarming signs succeeded one another, 
and on the day of the shock the feeling of 
dread extended even to the animal world. 
The birds uttered low cries of distress, the 
dogs howled, and the crocodiles left the beds of 
the rivers and fled with hideous noises into the 
forests. 

When the shock came the inhabitants rushed 
13 



194 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

into the streets, wild with terror, imploring the 
saints for aid, and a scene of confusion ensued 
almost as terrifying to the unfamiliar mind as 
the earthquake itself. Cumana suffered from 
several shocks at this time, and Humboldt and 
Bompland were surrounded by questioners 
who eagerly asked if their instruments could 
not foretell the duration of the trouble, or indi- 
cate fresh shocks. 

The splendid sunset, and the banks of gold- 
en clouds tinged with rainbow colors which 
illuminated the west at the end of this eventful 
day, were not the least interesting among the 
strange experiences which Humboldt felt at this 
time. 

In the latter part of November, Humboldt 
and Bompland left Cumana for Caracas, where 
they remained two months, charmed with the 
delightful climate, and interested in making col- 
lections of geological and botanical specimens. 
Caracas was one of the most important towns 
of South America, and the surrounding country 
was rich in plantations of citron, figs, coffee, 
and other tropical productions. The inhabi- 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 195 

tants were hospitable, and gave a friendly wel- 
come to the travellers, who were glad to remain 
a while amid such pleasant scenes before start- 
ing out on the great undertaking which had de- 
tained them in South America. 

This was to explore the llanos of the Orinoco 
and Amazon, and make a scientific survey of 
those almost unknown regions. After a pre- 
liminary excursion to various places of inter- 
est, such as the warm springs, the gold veins, 
the sugar and indigo plantations, which were 
to be found in the western part of Venezuela, 
they finally embarked on their journey on the 
Apure, intending to sail down this stream to 
its junction with the Orinoco, thence to the 
Rio Negro, and so on to the Amazon. 

The journey was important, for from the 
moment of starting they travelled through re- 
gions hitherto almost unknown to the white 
man, and abounding in scenes of scientific inter- 
est. The river itself was crowded with fish, 
sea-cows, crocodiles, and turtles, its shores 
were the home of innumerable flocks of birds, 
and the woods were filled with monkeys, tapirs, 



196 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

jaguars, and other animals. In the daytime 
the voyaging was comparatively easy. The 
Indians who managed the boat were skilled 
oarsmen, and the constant variety of incident 
kept up a lively interest ; but at night, when 
the boat was moored, and the travellers had 
lain down in the hammocks weary with the 
day's journey, another side of the picture pre- 
sented itself. 

The neighboring forests were filled with the 
shrieks and howls of the wild animals, many 
of whom pursued their prey at night, and the 
knowledge that among these was the jaguar, 
whose approach always carried dread with it, 
did not greatly reassure the alarmed travellers, 
who saw in the waving shadows cast by their 
camp fires the angry eyes of this terrible foe 
glaring at them through the darkness, and 
could discern above the voices of the other 
animals his hoarse scream, as he pursued his 
prey from tree to tree. 

The journey on the Apure was largely occu- 
pied by Humboldt in adding to his collections 
of specimens and making drawings of every 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 197 

object of importance, and was thus very rich 
in scientific interest. 

When they reached the Orinoco, whose 
broad expanse of waters stretched before them 
like a sea, they had still greater opportunities 
for studying the characteristics of South Amer- 
ican scenery, and during their progress a re- 
markable rise in the river gave a fine chance 
for making observations on the water-levels. 

While on this river they landed on an island 
owned by one of the Spanish missions, and 
found that they were considered as suspicious 
characters by the priests, who could not imag- 
ine that they had really left the comforts of 
home and undertaken the dangers of an un- 
known country merely for the sake of making 
botanical collections and measuring the land. 

The great waterfalls in the Orinoco were a 
source of deep interest to Humboldt, who took 
the opportunity of measuring the height of the 
falls and comparing it with other celebrated 
cataracts ; the noise of the falls was also made 
a subject of investigation, and as in the soli- 
tude of such a region the quiet of the day is 



I98 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

never disturbed, Humboldt came to the con- 
clusion that the increased loudness at night was 
due to the fact that the cold air conducted the 
sound more perfectly than the warm air of the 
day. 

Humboldt stayed among the waterfalls five 
days, studying their physical characteristics, and 
then proceeded on his journey toward the Cas- 
siquiare, which unites the Orinoco with the 
Rio Negro. He reached the latter stream in 
due time, but found the passage of it the most 
difficult in his journey, as the swarms of poi- 
sonous insects, and the impenetrable thickets 
which lined the shores, made both rowing and 
landing equally hard. They had to cut a land- 
ing place with their axes, while the dampness 
of the wood, owing to the great amount of sap, 
made it almost impossible for them to obtain a 
fire. 

But at last the passage was over, and Hum- 
boldt felt amply rewarded for all the hardships 
he had endured when he found that he had 
actually traced the connection between the Ori- 
noco and the Rio Negro. This event was of 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 199 

the greatest importance to the travellers, as it 
enabled them to solve the mystery that had 
hitherto hung over those almost inaccessible 
regions. The possibility of travelling by water 
from the Orinoco to the Amazon had been a 
matter of doubt to Europeans, and the voyage of 
Humboldt was of the greatest scientific interest, 
as it settled the question definitely. The draw- 
ings which Humboldt made were used to cor- 
rect the old charts, and the societies of Europe 
were loud in their praise of the man who had 
ventured on such a perilous journey for the 
sake of science. 

At this place, also, Humboldt collected some 
valuable materials for illustrating the peculiar 
formation of the soil, and was able, from the 
experience gained, to hint at some general laws 
of nature in distributing the veins of water over 
the globe. Having accomplished the great 
object of his journey, Humboldt now left the 
region which had hitherto been regarded as 
almost mythical by Europeans, and returned 
to Cumana. 

Humboldt now arranged to undertake a gi- 



200 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

gantic expedition, to include visits to Cuba, 
Mexico, the Philippine Islands, India, and Tur- 
key, and as the first stage of the journey, sailed 
with Bompland for Cuba, reaching Havana a 
month after leaving Cumana. 

They remained in Cuba several months, 
studying the soil, climate, and vegetation, 
making many valuable additions to their bo- 
tanical collections, and observing the condi- 
tion of the slaves. But the great journey 
that had been planned was never undertaken, 
as in Cuba Humboldt heard that a friend with 
whom he had promised to travel through Chili 
and Peru, had sailed from France for Buenos 
Ayres, and he at once determined to return to 
South America and join him. But on reaching 
Carthagena, they learned that the season was 
too far advanced for a voyage on the Pacific, 
and resolved to occupy their time during the 
necessary delay by a journey up the Magda- 
lena, hoping to enrich his collections by some 
rare specimens. 

In this he was not disappointed, for they 
found the botanical treasures of this region 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 201 

equal to those in the Orinoco valley, and in 
addition to this work, Humboldt was able to 
make a chart of the river district, another great 
gift to geographical science. 

When this had been accomplished they left 
the Magdalena and proceeded overland to 
Quito, which they reached four months after 
leaving Carthagena. 

The journey was difficult, as the way led 
through an almost pathless region, but Hum- 
boldt improved his time by studying the forma- 
tion of the rocks and waterfalls, mines, remains 
of earthquakes, the soil, and the snow-covered 
volcanoes and mountain passes ; and although 
they arrived at Quito in an almost exhausted 
condition, they considered this part of their 
experience in South American travel as in- 
valuable. The delightful situation of Quito, 
with its agreeable climate and beautiful sur- 
roundings, soon brought back health and good 
spirits to the travellers. 

The ranges of lofty, snow-capped mountains 
which bounded the horizon roused anew the 
love for scientific research, and preparations 



202 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

were made for the ascent of Chimborazo and 
Cotopaxi. 

The volcano of Cotopaxi had always been 
noted for its terrific eruptions, and the visit of 
Humboldt to its crater was anticipated with 
unusual interest by the inhabitants of that re- 
gion. Humboldt had already found the crater 
of Pichincha inflamed, and bare of the snow 
which had filled it so long, a circumstance 
which excited general alarm in Quito, as indic- 
ative of another eruption, and any appearance 
of danger in the neighborhood of Cotopaxi 
would have been regarded with even more 
dread. In 1738 the flames from this volcano 
had risen above the crater in a ring measuring 
nearly three thousand feet in circumference ; 
two years later another eruption occurred, the 
noise of which was heard two hundred miles 
away ; a still later outburst threw so many 
ashes in the air that it was dark for several 
hours, and the inhabitants of the villages near 
were obliged to go about with lanterns ; but at 
the time of Humboldt's visit the snow still lay 
in gleaming masses on the summit, and as it 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 203 

was impossible to reach the brim of the crater 
he was unable to make the scientific experi- 
ments he had anticipated. 

He was also unable to reach the extreme 
point of Chimborazo, as a bottomless chasm 
stretched directly across his path, but he 
reached an altitude never before attained by 
any human being, pushing on his way even 
after reaching a point where the mercury froze 
in the thermometer and the blood gushed from 
the nostrils of the adventurous travellers. 

Humboldt now made various tours, fruitful 
in scientific interest, during which he examined 
the flora of the district, visited the remains of 
the great aqueduct of the Incas, and corrected 
the chart of the Amazon which had been made 
by a French astronomer, but which Humboldt 
found to be full of errors. Their travels finally 
brought them to Lima, where they were able 
to make some important observations on the 
climate and in astronomy, remaining there sev- 
eral months for that purpose. 

From Lima they sailed for Mexico, and as 
they passed the snowy peaks of the Chimbo- 



204 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

razo group an ominous sound reached their 
ears. It was the roar of Cotopaxi, fifty miles 
distant, whose snow-capped summit had van- 
ished in a single night, and whose thunderings 
reached them day and night when they were 
far away on their journey. 

Humboldt carried away from South America 
a picture so vivid and startling that he said, in 
after-years, it was only necessary to close his 
eyes to shut out surrounding objects, to see 
again the foamy waves of the Orinoco, down 
which he glided, followed by the shrieks of the 
jaguars ; or the treeless stretches of the llanos, 
where the moss-covered huts of the inhabitants 
lie miles apart, and the crocodile and boa, buried 
deep in the soil, sleep through the long season 
of drought — while the horses and cattle wander 
about roaring in agony, and the burnt grass falls 
in dust on the parched ground. 

During his journey he had suffered from ex- 
tremes of heat and cold unknown in the tem- 
perate zone ; he had lived in solitudes where only 
plants and animals flourished, and where the 
foot of man had never trodden before ; he had 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 205 

been exposed to ravenous beasts, and had found 
danger even in the trailing vines and beautiful 
flowers whose poisonous breath touched him as 
he passed, but through it all his courage never 
faltered, and his work for science still went on. 

And seldom has it been the fortune of the 
traveller to open such a world of unexplored 
beauty to the eye of the untravelled. 

South America, with its mighty rivers, lofty 
mountain-ranges, picturesque inland lakes, its 
llanos, varying from scenes of desolation to the 
luxuriant beauty of tropical vegetation ; with its 
fabulous mineral wealth, its forests of mahog- 
any and rosewood, its vast herds of horses and 
cattle roaming in undisturbed freedom over the 
immense plains ; its flourishing cities, in strange 
contrast to the secluded missions that were 
scattered in places remote from the world, its 
ruins of old Peruvian towns, and remains of a 
dead civilization, were all calculated to inspire 
the mind of a traveller like Humboldt — and 
when to this was added the knowledge that all 
this beauty of city and plain lay at the mercy 
of the dreaded earthquake and volcano, which 



206 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1 769- 1 8 59. 

were liable at any time to destroy it forever, the 
interest could not fail to be increased. 

In Mexico Humboldt's most important scien- 
tific work consisted in certain astronomical ob- 
servations by which he arrived at the correct 
longitude of the city of Mexico, which had until 
then been wrongly given on the maps. He 
also visited the celebrated mines of that country, 
devoting much time to the study of the ores, 
and made important observations on the forma- 
tions of the volcanoes of the region ; the antiq- 
uities of Mexico were also a source of great in- 
terest to the travellers, and much time was spent 
in examining them and transcribing descriptions 
to their journals. 

At last the great American journey came to 
an end, and, after a short trip to the United 
States by the way of Havana, Humboldt sailed 
for France and reached Bordeaux in August, 
1804, five years after his departure from Euro- 
pean shores. 

The knowledge that Humboldt, who had 
more than once been reported dead, had act- 
ually returned to his native land, bringing with 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 207 

him his valuable collections, created an immense 
excitement all over Europe, and his name soon 
became a household word. 

For the first time Europeans had an accurate 
and life-like picture presented to them of the 
New World, which had always possessed such 
a mysterious charm, and as they read the fasci- 
nating descriptions of Humboldt, they followed 
him in imagination through all his wonderful 
journey. With him they sailed up the Orinoco, 
traversed the llanos, crossed the snow-fields 
of the Andes, and visited the tropical forests ; 
and the popular fancy, not content with actuali- 
ties, threw over the adventures of Humboldt 
even a more magic spell. It was said that in 
his western tour he had fought and conquered 
giants, visited the tombs of dead nations and 
learned their buried secrets, had his courage 
tested by encounters with races that were but 
half-human, and had learned of Nature in her 
great solitudes the secret which governed the 
life of man, and the wisdom of all the ages. 
And though this view of Humboldt was but the 
result of that love for the marvellous which is 



208 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 

ever seeking something new, it did not lessen 
the fascination which was attached to his name, 
and he was regarded as a second Marco Polo, 
whose adventures were more romantic and ex- 
citing than any tale of the "Arabian Nights." 

For many years after his return Humboldt 
spent his time in preparing the complete history 
of his travels in America, giving public lectures, 
and perfecting his great theory as to the nature 
and development of the plan of the universe. 

But during this period of twenty-five years 
he had ever before his mind a great journey to 
Central Asia. With this in view he studied the 
languages, geography, and history of the East, as 
well as the existing descriptions of the physical 
formation of the country, and in 1829, having 
completed all his arrangements for an extensive 
tour, set out for India. Humboldt was accom- 
panied by a number of scientists, and the ex- 
penses of the journey were to be defrayed by 
the Russian Government, which was desirous 
of obtaining accurate scientific reports of the 
mineral wealth of its dominions. 

The expedition left St. Petersburg in May, 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 209 

1829, and was absent eight months, during 
which time Humboldt's industry was indefati- 
gable. During this time he explored the Ural 
formations, and gained an important insight into 
the gold and platinum deposits, besides discov- 
ering several new minerals ; visited the Altai 
Mountains, and made an important expedition 
to the Caspian Sea for the purpose of analyzing 
its waters and obtaining specimens of fish, be- 
sides making many observations on the climate, 
soil, and geological formation of the mountains. 
The journey was a most important one for 
science. Previous to this there existed only 
the vaguest ideas of the geography of Central 
Asia, the connection of the mountain-chains, and 
the productions of the soil ; but Humboldt's ac- 
curate survey of the hitherto unknown territory 
put geographical knowledge on a firmer foun- 
dation, and gave to the world a clear idea of 
that interesting land which possessed a charm 
for all nations as being the supposed first home 
of the human race. Humboldt proved that 
Central Asia was neither a broad plateau nor 

an immense cluster of mountains, as had been 
14 



2IO ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1 769-1859. 

supposed, but that it was crossed by the four 
mountain-systems which have exercised an im- 
mense influence on the migration of nations, 
and helped to form the history of the world. 

Humboldt also made important observations 
on the boundary of eternal snow, and, in his 
study of the winds and tides and their relation 
to climate, and to the forms of the continents, 
deduced a theory of the different temperatures of 
places in the same latitude but at great dis- 
tances from one another. 

The entire result of Humboldt's travels and 
studies was incorporated in his great work 
called " Cosmos," which was compiled from his 
notes, and in the composition of which he was 
aided by Cuvier and other naturalists. " Cos- 
mos" contains a theory of the formation of the 
universe, and embraces observations on the 
heavens, mountains, earthquakes, the sea, the 
earth's crust, the atmosphere, the geography 
of plants and animals, the races of men, the 
form, density, latent heat, and magnetic power 
of the earth, and the aurora borealis. 

It is the most exhaustive work ever under- 



ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1769-1859. 211 

taken by a single mind, and shows, as nothing 
else could have done, the extent and originality 
of Humboldt's powers. Besides the valuable 
contributions to geographical and geological 
knowledge, Humboldt's theories of the distri- 
bution of heat and magnetism were of special 
importance. His observations on the magnetic 
needle and the aurora borealis were of the 
greatest service to science, and it is largely due 
to him that observatories have been erected all 
over the world, from Canada to the Cape of 
Good Hope, and from Paris to Pekin, with 
special reference to the study of the earth's 
magnetism. 

Humboldt also devoted much time to the 
study of the isothermal lines, or lines of equal 
temperature which connect different places, and 
likewise the sciences of climatology and geog- 
nosy may be said to date from his time. 



CHAPTER X. 

DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

Davy was born in 1778 at Penzance, in 
Cornwall, where his family, who were of the 
middle class, had lived as farmers for over two 
hundred years. The country about Penzance 
is healthy and beautiful, diversified by hill and 
glen and stream, green fields and orchards, and 
bounded on one side by the sea, across whose 
waters shone the gray slopes of Mount Michael. 
And besides these advantages, the neighbor- 
hood possessed other attractions well calculated 
to charm the attention of an imaginative boy ; 
for here were the great monuments of the 
Druids, the most famous in England, the mas- 
sive piles seeming to hold old memories of 
an almost forgotten past, and here also were 
the not less interesting mining works, celebrated 
all over the world, and the source of all the 
wealth of Cornwall. 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829, 21$ 

Such surroundings made an early impression 
on the mind of Davy, and, while he was yet a 
child, his love for the marvellous and his taste 
for natural history were visible in a marked de- 
gree. Penzance was then famous for its ghostly 
traditions of haunted houses, there being hardly 
a dwelling in the neighborhood that was not 
marked by some supernatural horror, while its 
proximity to the sea also made the place a pop- 
ular resort for smugglers, and thus gave it an 
added fascination to a mind that had a leaning 
toward the adventurous, and it is thus not to 
be wondered at that the early years of the boy 
were filled with thoughts of the marvellous, and 
that life from the first was endowed with poetic 
and unusual interest. 

All the old tales of the region were poured 
into his ears by his grandmother, a woman of 
fervid imagination, who thoroughly believed in 
ghosts, witches, and fairies, and when this fund 
failed, the Arabian Nights proved a still more 
fruitful source of pleasure ; and when there were 
no more stories to be had in any way, then the 
boy turned story-teller himself, and, mounted on 



214 DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

a cart, would thrill his young companions with 
exciting tales of sea and land, in which genii, 
ghosts, and smugglers played interesting parts, 
embellishing his narration by his own imagina- 
tion, and earning a great local reputation by 
his dramatic representation of the events under 
consideration. 

This taste for the marvellous, which was such 
a marked characteristic of his childhood, was 
still prominent in boyhood, and was the princi- 
pal factor in his choice of a profession. The 
natural surrounding of his home, with its ever- 
changing sea and skies, the great variety of 
minerals produced from the mines and the vari- 
ous kinds of rocks that formed the outlying cliffs 
and headlands, all joined to awaken a keen 
sense of the marvels of nature and a desire to 
understand the laws which could produce such 
results. His school-days were not only de- 
voted to the study of text-books, but were oc- 
cupied with excursions, which had for their 
object the pursuit of natural history ; minera- 
logical and geological specimens were eagerly 
sought after, and a collection of birds and 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 215 

fishes was also added to the young naturalist's 
stores. 

When he was fifteen years of age, Davy was 
apprenticed to a physician, and from this time 
his studies assumed a more serious form, and 
he laid down a regular plan of reading, which 
included among other things works on botany, 
chemistry, and astronomy. For the next four 
years his time was fully occupied with these 
various duties. His reading included a copy 
of Lavoisier's " Elements of Chemistry/' and al- 
most immediately after his acquaintance with 
this work he began a set of experiments to 
prove the propositions contained in it ; and al- 
though his apparatus was very simple, consist- 
ing of wine-cups, tobacco-pipes, glass bottles 
and earthen crucibles, his materials being the 
mineral acids and other articles in use in medi- 
cine, and he was obliged to work at the kitchen 
fire because he could not afford one in his own 
room, yet the quality of the work was so fine, 
and the experiments such a success, that he was 
encouraged to go on ; and from this time he 
made such rapid progress in his scientific studies 



2l6 DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

that before he was twenty years of age he had 
propounded certain theories of light and heat 
which brought him to the notice of other stu- 
dents of science, and which are now considered 
as embodying the true theory of heat as ac- 
cepted by modern physicists. 

In his twentieth year Davy was appointed 
superintendent of an institution in Bristol, which 
had for its object the treatment of disease by 
different gases. The institution was supported 
largely by scientific men who wished to find out 
the remedial qualities of gases, and was fur- 
nished with a hospital, laboratory, and lecture- 
room. And this appointment proved of the 
highest service to the young superintendent. 
Time and the best apparatus were at his dispo- 
sal, and he could work in the consciousness that 
he had the intelligent sympathy of some of the 
first intellects of the day. 

He began his work here by the publication 
of his theories on light and heat, and this was 
immediately followed by experiments in gases. 
His first experiment was with nitrous oxide, 
a gas which was supposed to be harmful to 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 217 

the animal system, and capable of destroying 
life if inhaled in large quantities. Davy, in the 
course of his experiments, proved that this view 
of nitrous oxide was a mistaken one, and found 
that he could breathe in six quarts of the sup- 
posed harmful gas without the least injury, and 
declared that instead of being a deadly poison, 
the gas could be used with great benefit by 
physicians who wished to render patients in- 
sensible to pain, nitrous oxide being the first 
anaesthetic ever employed by the medical fac- 
ulty. The publication of his researches in 
gases which came out in 1800, excited con- 
siderable attention among scientific men, and 
resulted in his appointment as Professor of 
Chemistry to the Royal Institution in Lon- 
don, and in 1801, he delivered his first lecture 
there, which at once made him famous. His 
lectures were attended by the most celebrated 
people, and men of science did not more 
eagerly seek the lecture-room than did the 
noblemen, and leaders of fashion, who im- 
mediately opened their houses to receive such 
a distinguished guest, and vied with one an- 



2l8 DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

other in bestowing flattering attentions upon 
him. 

But these things were of minor importance 
to the young chemist, who declared that his 
life was filled with his work, and that amuse- 
ments seemed to him only like the dreams 
which came between his hours of waking. The 
fine laboratory now at his disposal would have 
amply compensated him for the loss of popular 
favor, and from this time his devotion to science 
was greater than ever, and the next few years 
were marked by a series of brilliant chemical 
discoveries, unequalled in the history of any 
other scientist. These discoveries related 
chiefly to the connection between chemistry 
and electricity. 

The discovery by Galvani of galvanic electric- 
ity, and the investigations of Volta that had led 
to the construction of the voltaic battery, had 
given an immense impetus to electrical science ; 
and subsequently the truth of Lavoisier's theory 
that water was composed of oxygen and hydro- 
gen was proved by the use of the battery in de- 
composing water into its two elements. 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 219 

Davy was from the first intensely interested 
in the subject of applying electricity to chem- 
ical experiments, and said that the Voltaic 
battery was an alarm bell to every scientist 
in Europe, calling them to new fields of action ; 
and his own great fame rests chiefly upon 
his chemical researches in connection with 
electricity. 

When water was decomposed by the electric 
current, it was noticed that the positive and 
negative poles of the current showed the pres- 
ence of other substances than hydrogen and 
oxygen, and this phenomenon was for many 
years a great puzzle to scientists, who were 
forced to the conclusion, that, notwithstanding 
the fact that they could combine the two gases 
in such proportions as to make pure water, still 
there must, in reality, exist other elements in 
water than they had yet discovered. 

Davy believed that the presence of the other 
substances at the poles of the current was due 
to impurities in the water, and, after a series 
of interesting experiments, proved to the entire 
satisfaction of the scientific world that chemi- 



220 DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

cally pure water consists of oxygen and hydro- 
gen alone. 

These experiments extended over many 
years, and were carried on under unusually fa- 
vorable conditions, as Davy had at his command 
all the resources of the Royal Institution, which 
included the largest galvanic battery in the 
world, and a staff of assistants whose intelli- 
gence and fidelity aided greatly in the progress 
of the work. 

The remarkable power of electricity to break 
up chemical combinations and apparently neu- 
tralize the most powerful chemical attractions, as 
was shown in the decomposition of potash and 
soda and separation of the metals potassium 
and sodium, led Davy to the conclusion that 
chemical affinity and electrical attraction both 
resulted from the same cause, acting in the one 
case on the particles of substances and in the 
other case on their masses. 

This theory proved useful in his work, be- 
cause it suggested a number of experimental 
inquiries that were fruitful of important results. 

Davy also suggested that light, heat, electric- 
ity, chemical attraction, and gravitation might 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 221 

all be manifestations of the same power. But 
this speculation, interesting as it is, reaches 
out into a region in which darkness and ob- 
scurity still reign, in spite of the light of modern 
science. Yet there is now no doubt but that 
electricity and light are most intimately con- 
nected, and it is more than possible that elec- 
tricity plays a part in all chemical actions. 

In the progress of his work Davy made many 
experiments of a practical nature in order to 
put his discoveries to daily use. He visited 
tanyards to investigate the various processes 
used, and to try and aid this branch of industry 
by some suggestions of his own ; he also paid 
great attention to agriculture, which he claimed 
could be carried on to much better advantage 
if farmers understood the principles of chemis- 
try, and suggested that much of the sterility 
observable in mining districts was due to the 
presence of the poisonous productions from the 
mines, the refuse of which lay in heaps over the 
ground, impregnating the streams and making 
the atmosphere impure. 

Davy discovered the metals sodium and po= 



222 DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

tassium, and assisted other scientists in identi- 
fying other new elements. His discovery of 
sodium and potassium is considered his greatest 
contribution to chemistry, with the exception 
of his theory of the connection between electri- 
cal and chemical forces. 

The wish of Davy to make all his discover- 
ies serve some practical use to man, led him 
to make one of the most important inventions 
in the history of physics. From his earliest 
years he had been acquainted with the dangers 
and horrors which constantly beset the lives 
of miners, and his mind had always been drawn 
to the subject of some means of preventing 
those terrible explosions, which from time to 
time caused such sorrow and desolation in 
every mining district 

These explosions were caused by the in- 
flammable gas, called fire damp, which always 
accumulates in great quantities in mines, and 
which is ignited by a lighted candle or lamp. 
Although fire damp is always present in mines, 
it is only dangerous when mixed with a certain 
proportion of common air, and the danger lies 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 223 

in the inability of the miner to detect this con- 
dition, in the power of the gas to issue in enor- 
mous quantities in a comparatively short space 
of time, and, in a great measure, in the careless- 
ness which characterized that class of men, 
whom constant peril had rendered almost in- 
different to danger. 

In 18 15, Davy began a series of chemical 
experiments to investigate the nature of fire 
damp, and arrived at these results : that it re- 
quires to be mixed with a very large quantity 
of common air before becoming dangerous, 
that it requires a greater amount of heat to 
ignite it than any other gas, that it produces 
little heat when burning, and has small power 
of expansion ; he found also, that the mixture 
of fire damp and air necessary for explosion 
will not ignite in metal tubes, and that it can 
be made non-explosive by adding carbon or 
nitrogen to it. 

Mining could not be carried on without the 
use of lamps, lamps could not burn without air, 
and air if mixed with fire damp would cause 
explosions ; the problem, therefore, was to in- 



224 DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 

vent a lamp which could burn in safety in the 
presence of fire damp, and this Davy did. He 
surrounded the flame of the lamp with wire 
gauze which took the place of metal tubes, in 
lowering the heat ; the gauze allowed the fire 
damp to rush in and surround the flame which 
ignited it, but although this happened inside 
of the wire, so much heat was carried off by 
the metallic surface, that the temperature out- 
side was not raised to the explosive point be- 
fore the miner had a chance to escape. 

This safety lamp, which is always known by 
the name of its inventor, has been one of the 
greatest gifts of science to man, and it has 
been estimated that it has saved more lives 
than any other invention, having robbed one 
of the chief industries of the world of its great- 
est terror, and brought safety and comfort 
where before existed danger and ever-present 
alarm. 

In the beginning of his career, while he was 
yet a boy, roaming about the hills and dells of 
Cornwall, he had sketched on the cover of a 
little book which contained his notes, the figure 



DAVY, AND NATURE'S MAGICIANS, 1778-1829. 225 

of a lamp encircled with an olive wreath, and 

this almost prophetic symbol may well illustrate 

the motive w r hich prompted all the researches 

of this great man, that in all the discoveries 

and achievements of science, the student of 

nature should but aim at the revelation of truth 

and the peaceful advancement of the race. 

Davy died in Italy in 1829, while travelling 

for his health. Although only fifty-nine years 

old he had accomplished as much as is often 

done in much longer lives, and he will ever be 

known as the chief of that illustrious band, 

whose work has marked their era as the golden 

age of chemistry* 
15 



CHAPTER XL 

FARADAY AND THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY 
BY MAGNETISM, I 79 1- 1 867. 

The year following the death of Franklin was 
marked by the birth of Michael Faraday, whose 
work in electricity brought that comparatively 
new science to a still more practical plane than 
had been reached by the American philosopher. 

Faraday was born at Newington, South Lon- 
don, and was the son of a blacksmith, whose 
delicate health made it often impossible for him 
to earn a comfortable living for his family, and 
Michael's early years were spent in the manner 
usual to the poorer class of city children. 

He played in the streets with the children of 
other mechanics, and took care of his younger 
sister while his mother was busy about house- 
hold matters, and ran on errands to neighbor- 
ing shops ; and, in fact, had his life filled with 



MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 227 

that mixture of responsibility and duty which 
usually falls to the lot of the younger members 
of the families of city workmen, and which de- 
velops so early the shrewdness and self-reliance 
which characterize that class of children. 

There was nothing in the surroundings of 
the boy to lead to the study of nature, and al- 
though the older members of the family had 
memories of a country home in Yorkshire, life 
to Michael meant only the crowded streets, and 
uninteresting sights and sounds which mark 
the poorer districts of a great city. But hap- 
pily for him the very humbleness of his circum- 
stances was made the opening for something 
better. The serious business of life begins 
early for the children of the poor, and when he 
was thirteen years of age Michael was placed 
as errand boy to a bookseller who lived near 
by. He had learned to read, write, and cipher, 
at a common day-school in the neighborhood, 
and this meagre education, supplemented how- 
ever by good health, an honest purpose, and 
excellent home training, formed his capital in 
his venture with the world. It was his business, 



228 MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 

among other things, to deliver newspapers to 
his masters customers, and so well did he ac- 
quit himself of these duties that after a year in 
the shop the master received him as a regular 
apprentice in the bookbinding and stationery 
business, exempting him from the usual premi- 
um in consideration of his faithful services. 

And, as in the case of Franklin, it was while 
he was an apprentice that his mind was first 
directed toward serious study. The handling 
of books was his daily work, and their contents 
could not fail to be of interest to the curious 
boy who had always been noted for his talent 
for asking questions about everything that 
came under his notice. And so he began to 
read, and learned straightway that the world 
was a very wonderful place. He had known 
before that if he left London and travelled 
through all the ways that civilized man has 
traversed, he should come across many strange 
things, and undergo many strange adventures, 
while becoming familiar with the different coun- 
tries and races of the earth ; this was an expe- 
rience common to the lot of every traveller. 



MICHAEL FARADAY, 179I-1867. 229 

But it was new to him to learn, from the pages 
of a popular work on chemistry, or the articles 
on electricity in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
that there existed in the poor little neighbor- 
hood, where he made his home, wonders as 
great as any that had ever been seen by the 
most adventurous traveller ; and that, in fact, 
he was not living in a dingy London court, but 
in a fairyland where the most marvellous 
events were constantly transpiring, and that 
water, and fire, and air, which he had only 
hitherto known as familiar agencies for support- 
ing life, were in reality great magicians who 
held sway over mighty, secret forces, and most 
marvellous of all, that their secrets could be 
learned even by so humble a person as himself, 
provided he brought the necessary care and 
sincerity to the work. 

Faraday stood astounded at the magnitude 
of this discovery, and immediately set about 
putting it to a practical test. His reading was 
followed by such simple experiments as could 
be carried on at a slight expense, and the re- 
sults showed that he had read to good purpose, 



230 MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 

and that science stands ready to unlock her 
treasure house to her humblest follower, if he 
bring but an honest purpose with him. 

The success of these little experiments en- 
couraged Faraday to such a degree, and gave 
natural philosophy such a strong interest, that 
he was glad to accept the money from his 
brother to attend a course of lectures on the 
subject which were given at a private house, 
and he learned drawing in order that he might 
illustrate these lectures and preserve them for 
future use. And there is every reason to be- 
lieve that his future career was decided at this 
time. Science had such a fascination for him 
that he longed for occupation more congenial 
than bookbinding, and declared that the hum- 
blest work of the laboratory would seem a de- 
light if he could but enter upon it. Pushed on 
by this desire he wrote to the President of the 
Royal Society, in the hope that something ad- 
vantageous might result from it, but in this 
he was disappointed, the president paying no 
heed to the solicitation of the unknown ap- 
prentice. 



MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 231 

But notwithstanding this rebuff Faraday 
kept to his purpose, and his apprentice life was 
largely filled with experiments and theories in 
natural philosophy. 

Since the time of Franklin various discover- 
ies had been made in electricity, and as this 
subject interested Faraday peculiarly, some of 
his earliest experiments were based upon these 
discoveries. 

In 1800, the Italian scientist, Volta, made an 
electric apparatus which possessed the wonder- 
ful power of constantly recovering the charge, 
thus forming a perpetual source of electricity. 
The apparatus was a very simple one, consist- 
ing only of alternate disks of copper and zinc, 
separated by pieces of paper or leather satur- 
ated with salt water. This combination formed 
a perfect electric machine and solved the ques- 
tion of preserving electricity indefinitely, and its 
invention is said to be the greatest effort of a 
single mind that the world has ever seen. 
This battery is called the Voltaic Pile, and one 
of Faraday's first experiments consisted in con- 
structing one of these piles, and finding that 



232 MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 

it would decompose Epsom salts ; afterward, 
with a larger pile he decomposed sulphate of 
copper, and made some experiments on the de- 
composition of water, and this pastime of his 
apprentice days eventually led to one of his 
greatest discoveries. 

Very soon after his apprenticeship had ex- 
pired Faraday wrote to Sir Humphry Davy, 
whose lectures he had attended, sending with 
his letter the notes he had taken of the lectures, 
and signifying his desire to enter upon some 
business of a scientific nature. This letter was 
favorably received by the great scientist, and 
an opportunity occurring soon after, Faraday 
was received by him as his assistant. A jour- 
ney to the Continent was made in company with 
Davy, and here Faraday w^as brought in con- 
tact with the most celebrated scientists of the 
time and found his enthusiasm for his chosen 
calling increasing with every day. He made 
notes of the experiments that he saw, and on 
his return to England carried on his studies 
with greater vigor than ever. 

His connection with Sir Humphry Davy 



MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 233 

was of the greatest service to him at this time, 
and was always warmly appreciated by Fara- 
day, whose generous acknowledgment of bene- 
fits was no less a characteristic of his mind than 
his own great modesty about his achieve- 
ments. 

Three years after his entrance at the Royal 
Institution as Davy's assistant he delivered a 
course of lectures at the City Philosophical So- 
ciety, on the general properties of matter, and 
the same year he published one of his experi- 
ments in the Journal of Science, showing that 
his progress as a thinker and as a public man 
was very rapid ; and his work for the five fol- 
lowing years, devoted almost exclusively to ex- 
periments in chemistry, placed him among the 
first chemists of the day. 

When he was thirty years old Faraday be- 
gan his researches in electricity which resulted 
in the discoveries that made him famous. A 
few years before this Professor Oersted, of 
Copenhagen, while lecturing before his class, 
noticed that a magnetic needle that happened to 
be lvin<2" on the table before him was set in mo- 



234 MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 

tion by the current of electricity from a Voltaic 
pile with which he was experimenting. Oersted 
immediately followed up the suggestion con- 
tained in this occurrence, and before long gave 
to the world his famous discovery that electric- 
ity will deflect the magnetic needle, or cause it 
to change its position, though the current may 
have to pass through a wire of considerable ex- 
tent — a discovery which in time led to the in- 
vention of the telegraph. 

Faraday conceived the idea that if electricity 
would affect the needle, and magnetize iron as 
Oersted had discovered, it might be possible to 
accomplish the reverse of this, and therefore at 
the beginning of his work in electricity set 
about finding the relation between it and mag- 
netism, starting with the proposition that they 
were identical. For seven years he worked 
over this problem and at last his efforts were 
crowned with success, and he proved that a 
magnet would induce electricity in a coil of 
wire. 

Oersted's discovery is called electro-magnet- 
ism, and Faraday's magneto-electricity, and 



MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 235 

both discoveries rank among the greatest in 
electrical research. Previous to this very little 
was known about magnetism. The lodestone 
had been shown to have the power of giving its 
attraction to a few other substances, such as 
steel, cobalt, and iron, but Faraday's experi- 
ments threw new light on this interesting sub- 
ject. He proved that many other substances 
were susceptible of polarity — the peculiar prop- 
erty of the magnetic needle in pointing to the 
north and south, and having its attraction at the 
poles — and that certain other bodies were re- 
pelled by both poles of the magnet. He also 
discovered the magnetism of the air, and that 
nearly all substances are affected in one way or 
another by a powerful magnet. 

His discovery of magneto-electricity, one of 
the results of which is the electric light, was 
hardly more important than the discovery that 
is known as voltaic induction, or the power of 
a current of electricity passing through a wire 
to develop a current in a parallel wire which 
does not touch it. This discovery led to the 
invention of the induction coil by Ruhm- 



236 MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 

korff, which has been the means of many later 
important discoveries in electricity. 

Faraday's third great contribution to electri- 
cal science, which was preceded by the discovery 
of the identity of all kinds of electricity however 
produced, was the establishment of the law 
which governs the decomposition of bodies by 
electricity. 

Besides the electric light, the practical results 
of Faraday's labors are shown in many ways, 
but even if his discoveries had been found im- 
practical for the uses of daily life, his researches 
would have still been of the greatest value to 
science, where an isolated fact often leads to the 
most important consequences. 

Faraday's genius was allied to that of the old 
philosophers who sought to find the secret of 
life, and he entertained the idea that gravita- 
tion, electricity, heat, light, and all the forces of 
nature might be identical, or different expres- 
sions of one governing power. 

This fancy led to many of his most impor- 
tant discoveries, and contains a suggestion 



MICHAEL FARADAY, 1791-1867. 237 

which may in time lead to the solution of the 
world-old problem ; but, however that may- 
be, his work for science will bear fruit to the 
latest day. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CHARLES LYELL AND THE STORY OF THE ROCKS, 
1797-1875. 

The history of the natural sciences may be 
likened to a book which has been read a little 
from time to time, but of which no one has 
gained a full knowledge. 

And this is especially true of geology, the 
science that treats of the history of the earth. 

The Greeks, with their eager thirst for 
knowledge, and untiring zeal in its pursuit, had 
opened this wonder-book of nature, and read 
some of the secrets revealed in its fascinating 
pages, but, as was the case with many other 
branches of science, the knowledge thus gained 
consisted more of isolated facts than of any 
deep comprehension of the great laws which 
underlie the workings of nature. 

Pythagoras, in his journeys through Egypt 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 239 

and Chaldea, noticed the different appearances 
of the land, and made some observations on the 
subject, taking for his starting-point the idea 
of continual change. " Nothing," said he, " per- 
ishes, but all things change their form," and it 
was to these constant changes that he claimed 
all the phenomena connected with the earth 
v/ere due. 

After Pythagoras, other Greek philosophers 
took up the story where he left off, and read a 
little further on ; but the knowledge thus gained 
was not of a kind to explain any of the secrets 
that were hidden in the earth, and can only be 
likened to the pictures scattered through a vol- 
ume, and which are understood only when one 
has read the printed page. 

And then for many centuries the history of 
the earth was like a closed book, and even 
when astronomy, botany, electricity, and other 
subjects had received earnest study by the 
great men of science, geology was still an un- 
explored region. 

Men had learned to count the stars of heav- 
en, to number the flowers of the field, and to con- 



240 CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 

trol some of the subtlest forces of nature long 
before any serious attempt was made to read the 
history of the earth, and all the wonders that 
lay before their eyes were only regarded as un- 
explained, and perhaps inexplainable mysteries. 

In the old days the popular belief that the 
interior of the earth was inhabited by races of 
beings who performed all the miracles of nat- 
ure, was esteemed a sufficient explanation, and 
all the vast mineral wealth that is stored away 
in the earth's great treasure chambers was sup- 
posed to be the work of the kind genii who be- 
stowed their riches with lavish hands upon their 
human favorites. 

But it was only in the dark ages of science 
that this belief could be held, and when nature's 
wonders ceased to be regarded with the un- 
reasoning awe which is the general attendant of 
ignorance, and it was no longer considered irre- 
ligious to study the workings of the universe, 
then the old superstitions faded away, and man 
required a more intelligent answer to his ques- 
tions as to the causes of the wonderful effects 
that were everywhere visible. 



CHARLES LYELL, I797~l875. 241 

And although geology is one of the sciences 
that have been very lately developed, yet, when 
once aroused, the interest in it became so 
strong that it was pursued with an ardor that 
soon brought about great results. The earth 
suddenly ceased to be regarded simply as the 
abode of man, and interesting only because it 
produced the wherewithal to supply his needs. 

It came to be looked upon instead as a thing 
in itself so wonderful and with a history of such 
antiquity, that man's experience seemed insig- 
nificant beside it, and geology was clothed with 
an interest as great as that attached to astron- 
omy when the telescope suddenly revealed the 
existence of the great star-systems of the re- 
mote heavens which had been hitherto invisible 
to the human eye. 

And then came study and research of the 

most absorbing nature, and in the new light 

thus given them, men saw even new and greater 

beauty. Before this the interior of the earth 

had been considered as a great treasure house, 

whose largess might be his who would seek it ; 

but now it was found that the rich veins of gold 
16 



242 CHARLES LYELL, 1 797- 1 87 5. 

and silver which streamed through the earth, 
like the rivers that flowed over its surface, 
the secret mines that held the priceless dia- 
monds and rubies in their hidden chambers, and 
the great coal measures whose layers bore the 
impress of the lily and the palm that had per- 
ished in dim-forgotten ages, could all tell the 
magic story of their birth to one who had the 
gift of hearing their voices. 

And the wise seekers after knowledge lis- 
tened with reverent attention, and gathered 
what wisdom they could, and thus a little of 
the marvellous history of the earth was learned. 

Chief among these earnest seekers was 
Charles Lyell, who was born at Kinnordy, For- 
farshire, Scotland, November 14, 1797. 

Although an intelligent and observing child, 
Lyell did not show any particular love for nat- 
ure until his eleventh year, when ill-health made 
it necessary for him to leave school and go 
home for a few months. 

Then the absence of playfellows, and the 
bent of his mind toward some absorbing occu- 
pation, first led him to notice the world of nat- 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 243 

ure that he had hitherto neglected, and all the 
myriad forms of life that he saw were suddenly- 
endowed with an unexpected interest. 

His attention was thus directed toward the 
study of the animal kingdom, and he began to 
observe carefully, if not methodically, the habits 
and peculiarities of insects. 

It happened that his father also had been in- 
terested in this branch of study, and the family 
library was furnished with some valuable vol- 
umes on entomology, the illustrations of which 
served to teach Lyell the names and localities 
of the butterflies, moths, and aquatic insects that 
he began to collect. 

Although he was not conscious of it, his 
investigations were carried on in the true 
scientific spirit, including the study of the in- 
sects, particularly of the butterfly, from the 
hatching of the caterpillar, through the trans- 
formation of the chrysalis ; while at the same 
time he learned to discriminate so nicely be- 
tween the several hundred species that he soon 
became familiar with, that the names which he 
gave to certain tribes, such as "the fold-up 



244 CHARLES LYELL ? 1797-1875. 

moths, ,, "the yellow underwings," etc., were 
afterward found by him to really indicate the 
natural families of classification. 

This pursuit did not meet with the sympa- 
thy of the people at home, and young Lyell had 
to endure much bantering and ridicule in con- 
sequence of it, but this did not daunt his en- 
thusiasm, and his persistence clearly indicated 
the spirit of the true seeker after wisdom who 
lets nothing turn him aside from the path he 
has chosen. Lyell's collection of insects made 
at this time was valuable, even though his 
methods of preserving the specimens were often 
unscientific and injurious, and he had the satis- 
faction in after years of knowing that the but- 
terflies and moths which he captured and pre- 
served with so much patience, finding inspira- 
tion and help in his work only from the printed 
pages of Linnaeus and other naturalists, was 
considered of sufficient value to be utilized by 
one of the first entomologists in England. 

From this time Lyell's appreciation of nature 
never failed, and his usual boyish pursuits re- 
ceived new zest whenever they approached the 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 245 

region of living forms ; and when he returned 
to school his ardor by no means decreased; 
the favorite amusement of birds'-nesting being 
turned by him to an advantage which resulted 
in a knowledge of the eggs of almost every 
bird in that region, which was particularly rich 
in varieties. 

The love of one branch of natural science in- 
variably leads to an interest in others, for in the 
world of nature all things are so closely allied 
that an interest in one presupposes an interest 
in all, and thus it happened that Lyell's taste 
for entomology eventually led to the selection 
of his life's work. 

When he was seventeen he entered Oxford, 
and although he pursued the regular course 
with a fair amount of interest, he still showed a 
love for the works of nature which distinguished 
him from his companions. 

He continued his studies of insects in his leis- 
ure hours, having at this time the assistance of 
an experienced naturalist, and it was during this 
period also that he became aware that there was 
such a science as geology, and that the history 



246 CHARLES LYELL, 1 797- 1 875. 

of the earth might be studied with the same ex- 
actness as distinguished the classification of ani- 
mals and plants. 

The knowledge that the earth, which he had 
hitherto regarded only as the abode of man, 
possessed an antiquity far exceeding the most 
remote history of the human race, excited his 
imagination to such a degree that he knew no 
rest until he undertook a course in geology. 
He was thus led to an interest in fossils, and at 
once began to form acquaintances among col- 
lectors, recognizing in one instance the house 
of a prominent naturalist by a large ammonite 
which he saw at the door. 

From the time of his second year at Oxford 
geology occupied a prominent part in Lyell's 
mind, and the study of the earth became grad- 
ually of absorbing interest ; and he was more 
and more amazed to find that, while science had 
progressed in every other department, the earth 
still remained almost as great a mystery as it 
had been in the first dawn of scientific thought. 

The genius of Galileo and Herschel had read 
the secret of the heavens, and mapped out the 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 247 

star-system so that remote space had long since 
ceased to be regarded as an unknown region, 
and the astronomer could find the orb he 
sought with the same ease that one might walk 1 
into a garden and pluck a favorite flower. 

Kepler and Newton had formulated the great 
laws of planetary motion, and the discoveries in 
electricity had revealed a subtle force which 
pervaded all nature to an extent that had not 
been dreamed of before. Linnaeus had dem- 
onstrated the order which harmonized the ani- 
mal and vegetable worlds, and chemistry had 
brought to light the unsuspected resources of 
nature, but as yet no one had given a theory of 
the earth's history which would satisfactorily 
account for its present state, and place geology 
among the familiar sciences. 

Besides the gold and gems, other things 
served to tell man of the wonders of the earth ; 
the fossils found in Europe, in America, and in 
Asia showed that the earth had undergone 
changes as great as those which turn the nebu- 
lous masses of infinite space into great stars, 
whose light will shine on for countless ages 



248 CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 

after man has ceased to exist, or that which 
converts the sunshine and the dew into the 
flowers that spangle the meadows or brighten 
the wayside. 

Leaf by leaf the great book of nature was 
turned, and the story found to be marvellous 
beyond any conception of poet or romancer. 
To the common eye the surface of the earth, 
with its wide diversity of mountain, valley, 
ocean, and plain seemed wonderful enough, 
but the geologist looked deeper and found still 
more enchanting scenes. Like a magician of 
old he bade the earth lay aside her green veil 
of mystery, and claimed her secrets for his own. 

He examined the rocks and found that the 
white cliffs of England were the products of liv- 
ing animals, and that the tiny shells, pieces of 
coral, fragments of sponges, and other fossils 
found in limestone or chalk rocks, indicated 
clearly the sources of formation, and pointed to 
a time when myriads of animals swarmed in the 
seas where now stand the long ranges of hills 
that give beauty to the land. 

He looked at the great coal measures of Eu- 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 249 

rope and America, and read in their records 
even more wonderful accounts of the time when 
the continents were clothed in verdure to the 
shores of the Arctic seas ; imprinted in the dark 
layers of coal he saw the plume of the fern, 
great tree-ferns that towered like palm-trees, 
resembling species now found in tropical re- 
gions ; while other forms, such as large cone- 
bearing trees resembling the pines, and trees of 
a type that has now disappeared from the earth, 
having the whole surface of the bark covered 
with leaves thickly set like scales, gave greater 
evidence of the abundant vegetation which 
gave grace and beauty to those far-off ages. 

Then the zoologist added his gifts of fossil 
animals, and it was found that the earth was 
full of the remains of ancient life, and that from 
the skeleton of the great mastodon, whose 
tread would trample down the trees of the for- 
est, to the tiny leaf imprisoned in a crystal 
drop of amber, all could contribute to the story 
of the earth and make its meanings clearer. 

But, while geologist and zoologist combined 
their powers for the accumulation of innumer- 
able facts, there was yet no theory perfect 



2SO CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 



enough to account for the earth's formation, 
and to give the order of its successive stages. 

And it was in this respect that geology be- 
came especially important to Lyell. He stud- 
ied the different strata, the fossils, and the 
rocks that contained no fossils, earthquakes, 
volcanoes, the courses of rivers and glaciers, 
the fall of avalanches, and in fact all the phe- 
nomena connected with the changes going on in 
the earth, and it seemed to him that, as nature 
always works harmoniously and according to 
fixed laws, it might be possible to learn how all 
the changes that have taken place came to pass, 
and to formulate some law that should explain 
the workings of nature in this regard. While 
yet a student at Oxford a hint of the great sys- 
tem that he was to build up came to Lyell, but 
as this was in direct opposition to the popular 
theory of the history of the earth, he refrained 
from making it known until his studies and ex- 
perience should have made him better able to 
pronounce upon such an important matter. 
With this in view he began to travel, visiting 
France, Germany, and Italy, and making the 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 2$l 

most accurate observations on everything that 
came in his way. 

He studied the rocks of the Jura, the Alps, 
and the Valley of Chamouni, the glaciers of 
the Rhone, and the floods of the Valois, and 
in his descriptions of these places showed re- 
markable power both as a botanist and geolo- 
gist. 

When he returned from his journey he began 
geologizing through England, examining chalk 
beds, crystallized rocks, alluvial marsh lands, 
and clay pits, and from his indefatigable indus- 
try soon became known to all the leading geol- 
ogists, who were glad to give to his powers of 
observation and generalization the tribute which 
they justly deserved. 

In 1823 he was elected a secretary of the 
Geological Society, being in his twenty-fourth 
year. In the same year he visited France 
again, and saw Cuvier and Humboldt, both of 
whom recognized in the young geologist a 
worthy student of science. For several years 
after this Lyeil's time was spent, partly in Eng- 
land and partly on the Continent, studying vol- 



252 CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 

canic and glacial action, and preparing his work 
on geology which appeared in 1830. 

Up to this time there had been a wide diver- 
sity of opinion among geologists as to the 
causes of the changes in the earth's surface. 
About the middle of the seventeenth century, 
Steno, a Danish geologist, gave to the world 
his explanation of fossils, claiming that they 
were the mineralized remains of animals, and 
said that the animals now in existence could 
only be properly studied by comparing them 
with the fossil remains of other ages. This was 
a step far in advance of the time when it w r as 
claimed that the shells and fossils found in 
mountains remote from the sea were made by 
the stars, or produced by some trick of nature, 
and the suggestion to study the past from the 
present was made in the true scientific spirit. 

A century later, Hutton, a Scottish geologist, 
whose love for chemistry had led to the study 
of geology, made some interesting observations 
on the changes which water will produce on 
the hardest rocks, and gave it as his belief that 
all the former changes in the earth's surface 



CHARLES LYELL, I797~ 1875. 253 

were due to the same agents that are now at 
work. He claimed that the strata which com- 
posed the earth at present were once under the 
sea, and said that the ruins of an older world 
were visible in the present structure of our plan- 
et, and that the same forces were now at work 
destroying the hardest rocks and carrying them 
to the sea, where they become again altered by 
volcanic heat, and that thus there was a con- 
stant change going on all the time in which 
nothing was lost, but everything gradually 
transformed. 

At that time the popular theory of the 
changes in the earth's surface was quite op- 
posed to the views of Hutton ; nearly all scien- 
tists taught that all the changes that had taken 
place in the earth's crust had been caused by 
great and sudden convulsions, such as earth- 
quakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, upheavals 
and depressions of the land and similar phe- 
nomena, which clearly indicated that nature 
acted spasmodically, and the earth had reached 
its present condition through the action of 
forces very different from those now in operation. 



254 CHARLES LYELL, I797~l875. 

This view would, of course, preclude the idea 
that nature acted in a uniform or constant way, 
and supposed all her laws to be subject to vio- 
lent changes. 

Hutton's theory was received with little favor 
by the public, who saw in it a disposition to ig- 
nore the Biblical account of the creation, and 
the author received a storm of abuse from crit- 
ics who thought that any inquiry into the ori- 
gin of the universe was an act of impiety. But 
to all his opposers Hutton only replied that the 
laws of nature were immutable, and that the 
forces which governed the changes on the earth 
were as unalterable as those which kept the 
planets in their courses, and held the reins of 
life and death. 

Hutton's theory was far in advance of his 
age, and was not generally accepted even by 
the most liberal men of science, but it is inter- 
esting to know that it became Lyell's work to 
elaborate the same idea, and to so strengthen 
it with indubitable proofs as to make its accep- 
tance a necessity. 

Contemporarily with Hutton lived the Eng= 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 255 

lish geologist, William Smith, whose good fort- 
une it was to carry geology a step farther than 
it had yet reached. 

The different strata or layers found in rocks 
had heretofore attracted the attention of geolo- 
gists very slightly, and the beds of different 
materials which lay one over the other in pits, 
and rock quarries were little regarded. They 
were known to exist, just as the beds, or strata 
of mud, gravel, and sand were known to alter- 
nate in the mouth of a river, but they were hard- 
ly recognized as of more importance than that 
given by the old botanists to the different colors 
of the rose, or the varied tints of the lily. 

But Smith studied the strata of all the rocks 
that he saw, and was able, from his accurate ob- 
servations and logical reasoning, to deduce a 
theory of the earth's formation in which the 
strata formed a prominent part. 

Two important discoveries were made by this 
geologist : first, that there is a regular order of 
succession of the strata, or beds, which proves 
them to have been formed at different times, 
and that in every case the beds at the bottom 



256 CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 

are the oldest ; also that this same order of suc- 
cession may be found all over the world ; and 
so sure was Smith of the truth of this theory 
that even at the time of its first conception he 
guessed correctly the nature of some hills he 
saw in a distance by their relative position in 
regard to certain rocks in the county through 
which he was passing. The second discovery 
was of equal importance, namely, that each 
stratum contained fossils differing from those 
found in other layers, and that knowing the 
fossils one could determine the strata from 
which they were taken. From these two dis- 
coveries Smith deduced a general law which he 
summed up as follows : The same strata are al- 
ways found in the same order of succession, 
and contain the same peculiar fossils. 

Lyell's " Principles of Geology/' which was 
published nine years before the death of Smith, 
incorporated the views of all those geologists 
who had striven to prove that nature works in 
a uniform manner, and the author announced as 
the foundation of his theory the belief that the 
past could only be studied from the present. 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 257 

Lyell's studies, travels, experiments, and ob- 
servations had all led him to the same conclu- 
sion, that in nature there is no life or death, 
but only change ; and that the same agents 
which produced the great changes on the 
earth's crust are at work now, although they 
work so slowly that the effects are almost im- 
perceptible. 

Murchison, a distinguished contemporary of 
Lyell, taught that the mountains, and hills, and 
valleys had been created by great and violent 
convulsions of nature. This was called the 
convulsionist theory and had many adherents, 
who explained every change by saying it was 
the result of some great catastrophe. 

But Lyell had read the book of nature with 
a clearer eye, and his study had led him to a 
belief more in harmony with the known laws of 
the universe. He taught that those subtle al- 
chemists, the rain, and the frost, and the snow, 
the rivers and the glaciers, carried on their 
silent work of transformation in the remote 
ages as surely and as steadily as they labor 

now ; that the river which comes down from 
17 



258 CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 

the mountain cutting its way slowly through 
the solid rock till the path has deepened into a 
trench, and the trench widened into a ravine, 
and the ravine become a valley, is but a type 
of the action of all the rivers that have flowed 
since time began ; and that the rain and frost 
which splintered the mountain crest into peak 
and pinnacle, and carved out crag and cliff from 
its rocky sides are still carrying on the work 
begun when first the mountains were upheaved 
by the great forces working in the interior of 
the earth, and never to cease till all the ages of 
the future have passed away. 

Lyell took the minerals and rocks of the 
earth and placed them one by one in their prop- 
er places till the great book of the earth's his- 
tory could be read from beginning to end, and 
all its text and pictures rendered so clear that 
even the most ignorant could understand it, and 
know that the child who stands by the moun- 
tain rill watching the strong current sweep 
along the shining pebbles is reading the secret 
by which the great rocks were formed ; and 
that the violet which drifts upon the surface of 



CHARLES LYELL, 1797-1875. 259 

the meadow brook till it is caught and tangled 
among the debris at its outlet is but a type of 
those great deposits which it took thousands 
of years to harden into imperishable forms of 
beauty : while the tiny sea- shell which he picks 
up along the shore tells the same wonderful 
story of those bygone ages when all the teem- 
ing life of the animal and vegetable worlds had 
not yet turned to stone. 

The fact that the different strata could be 
recognized by their fossils was made by Lyell 
the basis of the law of succession of life upon 
the globe, and from this time geologists began 
to speak of the different ages of the world in 
reference to the life of plants and animals upon 
it ; those rocks in which few fossils are found 
belonging to one age, those which contain fos- 
sils resembling living species, another age, and 
so on, until the present was bound to the past 
with the strongest links, and the succession of 
life was proven with the same ease that one 
might demonstrate a law of mathematics. 

Although the "Principles of Geology" met 
with severe criticism from those who fancied 



260 CHARLES LYELL, 1 797- 1 87 5. 

that they saw in it proof that the author wished 
to inculcate views different from those taught by 
the Church as to the origin of the world, it grew 
steadily in popular favor, and is the theory ac- 
cepted at the present time. And Lyell's work 
later on showed the same spirit of progressive 
thought. 

His travels in Europe and America only 
served to deepen his belief in his first impres- 
sions. Thirty years after the publication of the 
" Principles " he published his " Antiquity of 
Man," in which he claimed that the human race 
was many thousands of years older than had 
been supposed, a theory which later researches 
have all strengthened, while his observations 
on the great ice age have an equal value for 
later geologists. 



mmmmMB 




LOUIS AGASSIZ. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

AGASSIZ AND THE STORY OF THE ANIMAL KING- 
DOM, I 807-I 874. 

The records of civilized nations can hardly 
point to a time when man had not yet learned 
to tame and bend to his will the beasts which 
seemed only created for his use. And the 
great value of these four-footed slaves soon be- 
came so apparent that the entire wealth of 
families and tribes was often counted by the 
number of oxen, camels, sheep, horses and ele- 
phants which were owned ; these animals were 
also used as the medium of trade, and in agri- 
cultural countries, where the inhabitants had 
few and simple wants, it often happened that 
gold and silver money was quite unknown, 
and wheat and barley were exchanged for sheep 
and oxen, just as now the same products are 
brought to market and sold for so much coin. 



262 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

The animal kingdom thus occupied a very 
important place, and the chief who could count 
his camels and horses by the hundred was the 
one who received the greatest honors, and 
could hold easy dominion over his less wealthy 
neighbors. 

Very early, too, we find that men learned to 
put a different and greater value on animals 
than that granted by the mere power of pos- 
session, for in many countries they were wor- 
shipped as gods, and received divine honors; 
and even those which were not actually regard- 
ed as deities, were in many cases held sacred, 
from the great reverence which was paid to 
life. 

Thus many animals not used for food, such 
as cats, dogs, crocodiles, and serpents, were 
looked upon as sacred to certain divinities, and 
it was considered an ominous sign to kill one of 
these, even by accident, while he who should so 
disregard custom as to be wilfully guilty of the 
death of one was regarded with the greatest 
horror. 

In Egypt this superstition arose largely from 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 263 

the popular belief that the soul of man after 
death entered the body of some animal as a 
punishment for the sins committed in life, and 
the study of medicine was hindered by the ab- 
horrence attached to one who dared to aid his 
studies by the dissection of a dead animal ; but 
in many cases, as in India to-day, the dislike to 
slay an animal, needlessly, arose from the awe 
and mystery which were attached to life, which 
the mystics of all European and Asiatic nations 
invested with the utmost sacredness. 

For many centuries man was content to know 
that certain animals could be put to certain 
uses, and were called by certain names, and let 
his interest cease at that point. 

But later, when Greek civilization and learn- 
ing had combined to invest all knowledge with 
priceless value, the animal kingdom began to 
be looked upon as an interesting study, and 
Aristotle, whose genius left no branch of 
knowledge unimproved, may be said to have 
founded the science of zoology when he incor- 
porated among his other works an account of 
all the animals known to the ancients, and 



264 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

made some attempt at classification and descrip- 
tion. 

In this work Aristotle sums up such a vast 
number of statements in regard to the resem- 
blances and differences of animals, their anato- 
my and the functions of the various organs, 
that the modern naturalists have only had to 
follow the way he marked out to arrive at some 
of the most interesting discoveries in Zoology. 

It is supposed that Aristotle was assisted in 
his zoological studies by the great number of 
strange animals that Alexander the Great had 
sent to him from Asia and Africa, for this mon- 
arch was justly proud of the genius of the 
famous philosopher, and took pleasure in afford- 
ing him every opportunity for displaying it. 

Aristotle placed the backboned animals first 
in his order of classification, and distinguished 
between these and the white-blooded animals, 
which have no backbone, and are divided into 
rings or segments. 

Although the student who now reads the 
works of Aristotle will find many statements 
that are absurd and false, they do not detract 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 265 

from the genius of the man who first con- 
ceived the possibility of arranging the differ- 
ent families of the animal kingdom so that they 
might be intelligently studied, and it has been 
suggested by an eminent modern authority that 
the errors in Aristotle's treatise may have 
arisen from the fact that the students who lis- 
tened to his lectures incorrectly reported his 
notes, and that it is these notes which form the 
greater part of what is now known as Aristotle's 
treatise on animals. 

Hippocrates, who died ten years before the 
birth of Aristotle, had taught that the practice 
of medicine could not be properly followed 
without a knowledge of the structure of the 
human body, and his studies in zoology first 
led to the foundation of the art of healing upon 
scientific principles. Many of his descriptions 
of the symptoms and developments of fevers 
and other diseases are found accurate to-day, 
and although his theories have for the greater 
part fallen into disuse, he will ever be remem- 
bered as one of the world's most progres- 
sive thinkers, whose work it was to destroy 



266 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

the superstition that all disease resulted from 
the anger of some offended deity, and to found 
instead a belief based upon reason and experi- 
ment. 

Aristotle's influence on thought was shown 
by the fact that when the great library of Alex- 
andria was founded, there were gardens, menag- 
eries, and dissecting rooms especially devoted 
to the study of zoology ; and if the results of 
that period of investigation had not been lost it 
it is probable that many of the modern discov- 
eries in zoology would be but the finding again 
of well-known truths. 

After the decline of the Greeks the Arabs 
became prominent as cultivators of literature, 
the arts and science. Taking for their motto : 
" He dies not who gives his life to science," 
these careful students stored up the priceless 
treasures of Greek learning, and at a time when 
the nations of Europe were sunk in ignorance 
and superstition, kept alive the spirit of scien- 
tific inquiry and preserved for posterity much 
of the wisdom of the ancient world. 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 267 

About the middle of the sixteenth century the 
study of zoology received a fresh impetus from 
the works of Gesner, a Swiss physician and 
professor of Natural History at the University 
of Zurich. 

Gesner published a valuable work on animals 
in which he reviewed the old authorities, con- 
tributed many important facts in regard to living 
species, and gave illustrations of many fossils. 

The link between the past and present was 
formed by the work of Gesner, for modern zool- 
ogy dates from that time ; and although nearly 
a century passed before the appearance of an- 
other eminent naturalist, yet the work went 
slowly on, and the interest in zoology kept 
steadily increasing, so that by the end of the 
seventeenth century it was possible to indicate 
a very decided advance in that study. 

Harvey had discovered the circulation of the 
blood, and given the world the benefit of his 
wonderful anatomical discoveries which revolu- 
tionized the study of medicine ; Ray had pub- 
lished his classification of the animal kingdom, 
the scientific merit of which has won him im- 



268 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

mortal renown ; and the use of the microscope 
had led to the knowledge of those minute forms 
of animal life which had hitherto escaped obser- 
vation, and to an acquaintance with the anat- 
omy of insects. 

Thus the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
tury found the world in a state of expectancy in 
regard to the natural sciences, and the work of 
Reaumur, who was born early in the century, 
gave evidence that the time was fruitful in 
original thinkers. 

Reaumur's labors were confined almost entire- 
ly to zoology, though his experiments in chem- 
istry, wherein he discovered the art of tinning 
iron, and made several contributions toward the 
manufacture of iron and steel and porcelain, 
were of great service in the mechanic's arts. 

His work in zoology consisted of a most ex- 
haustive study of insects. He describes their 
habits and anatomy, and was the first zoologist 
to bring their instincts into notice. The work 
was published in six volumes, and has been a 
valuable source of information to succeeding en- 
tomologists. 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 269 

Linnaeus' work on zoology was of great value, 
as his method of classification enabled students 
to easily place any animal in its proper order 
and family, and Bufifon, another zoologist of 
the eighteenth century, gave to the world a 
popular illustrated work on the animal kingdom 
which will ever be remembered as being the 
inspiration of more than one eminent naturalist. 

Bufifon's work was not distinguished for the 
careful exactness which belongs to other writers, 
but his glowing descriptions, and animated style 
gave his volumes a peculiar value. Zoology 
from that time ceased to be regarded as the 
province of the learned, for Bufifon had shown 
that it could be a source of amusement and in- 
struction to the most unscientific ; and we have 
only to call up the picture of Linnaeus and Cu- 
vier sitting in a college library and poring over 
the fascinating pages of this author to realize 
the important influence exercised by Bufifon in 
the history of zoology. 

Still another zoologist of the eighteenth cen- 
tury was Lamarck, a French author, who, al- 
though he did not begin the study of zoology 



270 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

until after he was fifty years old, is regarded as 
one of the greatest authorities by the student 
of to-day. 

Lamarck's principal work was devoted to the 
study of intervertebrates, or animals which have 
no backbone, and he raised this branch of zo- 
ology to a very important place. He was the 
first master to insist upon a thorough acquaint- 
ance with the lower forms of life as a prelimi- 
nary study to the higher forms, and so minute 
and exact were his studies of the lower animals 
that his works have become the text-books for 
all time. 

Lamarck was among the few zoologists who 
taught that the lower animals were first formed, 
and that the vertebrates or back-boned animals 
are of much later origin, a view that has been 
confirmed by the discoveries in zoology, and by 
the greatest modern naturalists. 

And thus the study of zoology was led on 
step by step, one naturalist making a discovery 
and another using it as a basis for a new 
ground-work of belief, until the nineteenth cen- 
tury found the scientific world possessed of a 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 27 1 

tolerably clear idea of the resources of the ani- 
mal kingdom, and its history from the earliest 
times. And then the story was taken up again 
by others interested in the great wonder-book 
of nature, and thus we find that time cannot 
interrupt, but only make more complete, the 
work of those who give their lives to science. 
Among the worthy successors of Linnaeus, La- 
marck, and Cuvier may be counted Louis Agas- 
siz, whose name is familiar wherever the stu- 
dent of science is found. 

Agassiz was born at Motier, in Switzerland, 
in 1807, exactly one hundred years after the 
birth of Linnseus, and his early life very close- 
ly resembled that of the illustrious child of 
the North. Like Linnaeus, his childhood was 
passed in a quiet country parsonage, situated 
on the borders of a lake, and embracing a view 
of a region of such picturesque beauty, that it 
could not fail to impress itself upon the mind 
of the child. 

The home-life of the parsonage was very 
simple, and the children of the family were early 
taught to regard only those things as valuable 



272 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

which were independent of wealth, and their 
childish pleasures were all such as could be 
found in any of the unpretentious little homes 
that surrounded them. 

Unlike many of the great naturalists who 
only took up their special work late in life, 
Agassiz may be said to have begun his life-work 
in his early childhood, though he himself was 
unconscious of it. 

For, like Linnaeus and Cuvier, his first im- 
pressions of nature were received from the 
games and employments of his country home ; 
and in his boyish taste for collecting nests, 
eggs, birds, and other pet animals, and in the 
little aquarium, supplied with specimens from 
the lake, could be traced the small beginnings 
of his scientific career. 

Thus the love of nature, and the finding out 
of her secrets, began with the boy's first con- 
sciousness, and in all his out-of-door sports he 
was laying up stores of valuable information. 
To him, as to all country children, the different 
seasons of the year brought each its offering 
of gifts and laid them at his feet ; and from the 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 273 

first spring blossom to the fall of the snow all 
nature seemed a harmonious whole, and the 
wide earth but a treasure-house where one 
might gather largess at his will. And as the 
years passed, Agassiz learned more and more 
of the great forces which linked him with the 
world of nature around him, and began to un- 
derstand the sympathy which the genuine nat- 
uralist feels for all forms of life. 

Besides these lessons, learned in the fields 
and woods and by the shores of the lake, where 
nature herself was the teacher, Agassiz had a 
few simple tasks out of books, his father and 
mother being his teachers, and, up to his tenth 
year, he received no instruction outside of his 
home. 

But a boy so intelligent and observing as 
Agassiz could not fail to learn many things not 
included in his daily hours of study, and the 
home-life of Motier, which was in many respects 
very primitive, furnished the boy many a self- 
imposed but not the less instructive task. 

From the shoemaker who came twice a year 

to fit the family out with boots and shoes, the 
18 



274 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

boy learned how to make a tiny pair of shoes 
for his sister's dolls, from the tailor, who was a 
guest in the house while making the spring and 
winter outfits, he learned to fashion a suit of 
clothes, and when the cooper arrived to put the 
barrels and hogsheads in order for the vintage, 
he found an apt pupil in the boy to whom noth- 
ing seemed uninteresting, and who gained, in 
these childish amusements, much of that train- 
ing of the eye and hand which were invaluable 
to him later on when dexterity and delicacy of 
touch were so necessary to his scientific pur- 
suits. 

And the times of seed-sowing and harvest 
and vintage, when all the members of the fam- 
ily took an unusual interest in the farming af- 
fairs, were also made to contribute their share 
toward the education of the future naturalist, 
who learned many practical, useful lessons about 
growing plants at a time when the learning 
seemed only childish pastime. 

The vintage was the great annual holiday 
season, when almost the entire population gave 
themselves up to the business of gathering the 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 275 

grapes and making the wine, and the merry- 
making attendant upon such a festival. Here 
all ages and classes met together, the very old 
and the very young being alike able to give 
their share of work and fun, and it was amid 
such scenes that Agassiz early learned to sym- 
pathize with the tastes and interests of everyday- 
life, and imbibed that generous love for human- 
ity which was such a distinguishing trait of his 
character. 

When he was ten years old Agassiz left home 
to attend school at Bienne, twenty miles away, 
where he remained five years, coming home 
only for the vacations. 

They were years full of pleasure to the boy, 
who developed a great taste for study, and 
made a lasting impression upon his mind ; for 
long before their close he had learned the great 
lesson for all scientists, to love knowledge for 
its own sake, and not merely as the means to 
an end. 

During this time his taste for natural history 
was confirmed, and the little collections he had 
made at Motier gave place to others more in 



276 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

keeping with his ambitions. He did not have 
the benefit of a teacher in these pursuits, and 
the pages of manuscript filled with notes were 
written on a plan entirely his own. He made 
at first no attempt at classification, being con- 
tent to give all the plants and animals for which 
he knew Latin names, with the design of extend- 
ing the list gradually until it should include the 
entire animal and vegetable kingdoms. 

Although this design may seem childish 
enough, it yet shows the birth of the true scien- 
tific spirit, which begins with inquiry into the 
familiar, and never ceases until the unknown 
has been explored as widely as possible. 

And although Agassiz's attempts at studying 
natural history were at this time so desultory, 
and included only general observations on the 
appearance and habits of the specimens, they 
yet were fruitful in laying the foundations for 
those accurate studies from nature which distin- 
guished the work of this naturalist. 

Meadow, field, forest, and stream were haunt- 
ed by the boy, who thought no living thing un- 
interesting, and his room was gradually turned 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 277 

into a small museum of natural history. Birds, 
insects, and fishes were collected with great 
care, and their modes of life so carefully studied 
that the knowledge thus gained became a store- 
house of useful facts when Agassiz became in- 
terested in the graver problems of natural his- 
tory. He raised caterpillars from the eggs and 
studied with minute care the different kinds, de- 
scribing their habits and differences of diet, and 
the length of time passed in the chrysalis state, 
and accurately noting the characteristics of the 
great variety of butterflies and moths, with 
which he soon became familiar. 

The songs of the birds, their twitterings, 
scoldings, changes of position, habits, and in- 
stincts were all as well understood by the boy- 
naturalist as the voices of his friends ; and in 
his autobiography he says that what he knew 
of the habits of the fresh-water fishes of Central 
Europe was almost entirely learned at that time, 
it being a matter of great surprise to him when 
he became acquainted with the works of the 
principal authorities on fishes, to find how little 
they knew of their habits and life, things which 



278 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

Agassiz himself had been familiar with since 
boyhood. 

The parents of Agassiz had intended that he 
should leave school at fifteen, and enter com- 
mercial life, for they had never associated any 
serious meaning with the boy's love for natural 
history, and the years passed at Bienne seemed 
a sufficient preparation for a life to be spent at 
the desk of a man of business. But Agassiz's 
love for study had grown to such proportions 
by the time it became necessary for him to 
leave Bienne that he begged for two years 
more of student life, and although this called 
for some self-denial on the part of the parents, 
who had only a limited income to depend upon, 
the wish was cheerfully granted, and the boy 
was allowed to enter the college of Lausanne. 

And this step, whose importance no one then 
conjectured, was in reality the turning-point of 
the boy's life. Here he heard his first lectures 
on zoology, based upon the teachings of Cu- 
vier and Lamarck, and learned the great im- 
portance of system and classification, and that 
the greatest authorities could differ in regard 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 279 

to the name and place of the various classes. 
The views of Cuvier in the " Regne Animal," 
and of Lamarck in his work on the inverte- 
brate animals, all showed conclusively the im- 
portance of anatomy in the study of zoology, 
as their conclusions were drawn chiefly from ob- 
servations on the structure of the animals, and 
depended little on other points. Agassiz was 
thus led to see the great value of anatomy, and 
his interest in this subject was at once awakened. 

Lausanne possessed the only collection of ani- 
mals in that part of the country, and Agassiz's 
newly awakened interest was stimulated by the 
sight of so many specimens hitherto unknown 
to him ; he visited the museum as often as pos- 
sible, observing and comparing the different 
varieties with his usual intelligence, and, no lon- 
ger content with this superficial way of study, 
ardently began to long to understand the inter- 
nal structure, so that he might be led to the 
scientific way of classification. 

In this respect he was fortunate in having an 
uncle at Lausanne, who was a physician, and 
who lent a willing ear to Agassiz's intelligent 



28o LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

questioning. And it was through the influence 
of this relative that all thoughts of a commer- 
cial life for Agassiz were finally abandoned, and 
he was allowed, when seventeen years of age, to 
enter the university of Zurich as a student of 
medicine. 

Here Agassiz's real scientific training began, 
as, for the first time, he came under the instruc- 
tion of men who were studying nature from her 
own book, and did not depend utterly on the 
teachings of others ; and this originality was 
of the greatest benefit to Agassiz at this time. 

He entered upon his medical studies with the 
greatest zest, being delighted with the idea of 
taking a profession so closely allied to his 
favorite pursuit of natural history, and as his 
teachers lent their aid and encouragement, 
whenever it was possible, his life at Zurich 
promised to partake more of the nature of a 
holiday than of a serious working time. His 
anatomical studies were especially interesting, 
as in that department he felt that he was not 
only fitting himself for his work as a physician, 
but that he was put in the way of following out 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 281 

the suggestions contained in the works of Cu- 
vier and Lamarck, and entering upon a wider 
field of scientific inquiry than he had been be- 
fore able to work in. 

The first lectures he heard in anatomy roused 
such an interest that he could think of nothing 
else, and in speaking of this time afterward he 
said that he could see nothing but skeletons, and 
could find no pleasure out of the dissecting- 
room, With his customary zeal he at once be- 
gan to make a collection of bones and skulls, 
dissecting all the animals he could find, and, as 
was the case at Bienne, turning his rooms into 
a small menagerie. 

A large pine-tree in the corner of the room 
became the home of scores of birds which flew 
about the head of the young naturalist while he 
was busy arranging his collections, and the 
streams and lakes furnished specimens for a 
new aquarium, while shells, minerals, and living 
pets of all kinds, showed that Agassiz had in 
nowise changed his tastes from those which dis- 
tinguished him as a child. 

A private library at Zurich, to which Agassiz 



282 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

had access, held some valuable works on natu- 
ral history, and here the young student spent 
many an hour copying the text and illustrations 
in his note-books, as he could not afford to buy 
the necessary text-books. Two volumes of 
Lamarck's " Invertebrate Animals" were copied 
at this time, and although this plan of study 
might appear unnecessarily hard, yet it after 
all served a good purpose, as it made Agassiz 
depend less on text-books and more on obser- 
vation and original research, a thing which could 
not fail to have a beneficial effect on one who 
was destined to become distinguished as an 
independent thinker. 

During his two years' stay at Zurich, Agassiz 
was diligent in his application to the study of 
medicine, but the love of natural history was 
gaining greater sway over him year by year, and 
the books and reports of those naturalists who 
had enjoyed foreign travel took such hold of 
his fancy that he, too, became possessed of an 
ardent desire to travel and study the wonders 
of nature for himself. 

It is not surprising, therefore, that at the end 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 283 

of two years, he persuaded himself and his 
friends that it was absolutely necessary for him 
to enter the University of Heidelberg for the 
purpose of pursuing his medical studies to the 
best advantage, for there he knew he should 
find some of the most distinguished naturalists 
of Europe. 

The life at Heidelberg was but a continuation 
of that passed at Zurich, with the exception 
that soon after his arrival at his new quarters 
Agassiz made the acquaintance of a young man 
who was, like himself, very deeply interested in 
natural history, and who became his intimate 
friend almost from the first moment of meeting. 

The two friends were together constantly, 
and studied zoology in the fields, woods, 
streams, fish-markets and museums, each bene- 
fiting the other by his experience and advice ; 
for although Agassiz had by this time become 
familiar with a large part of the animal king- 
dom his friend Braun was the better botanist 
of the two, and thus they were able to derive 
mutual benefits from each other's company. 
When not abroad botanizing and zoologizing 



284 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

they spent much of the time in their rooms, 
where, while one prepared specimens, arranged 
collections, or dissected cats, dogs, fishes, and 
butterflies, the other read aloud from some 
work on anatomy or physiology. His inter- 
course with Braun proved of the greatest ser- 
vice to Agassiz, who, from that time, ceased to 
regard the study of living animals as of para- 
mount importance, and began to take a wider 
view of the aims and ambitions of the naturalist. 

The work of Cuvier, and other specialists on 
fossils, also attracted his attention about this 
time, and in fact the experience of Agassiz at 
Heidelberg served to so deepen his percep- 
tion of his own peculiar powers as to make him 
dream more and more of becoming a naturalist 
to the exclusion of everything else. 

After a year and a half spent at Heidelberg 
Braun determined to enter the university of 
Munich, and Agassiz accompanied him. Mu- 
nich was rich in the presence of several teachers 
and travellers of distinction, and Agassiz at once 
felt the inspiration of the new influence. His 
medical studies grew irksome to him, and his 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 285 

studies in natural history occupied nearly his 
entire attention, while his visits to the rooms 
of two of his new friends who had travelled in 
Brazil, and brought home a fine collection of 
fishes, awoke anew that love of travel which is 
the ever-present impulse of the true naturalist. 

But travel was impossible at this time, and 
Agassiz was somewhat comforted for the de- 
privation, by a proposition from one of his trav- 
elled friends to describe the fishes brought back 
from Brazil. This was work of a character 
highly suited to the wishes of the young stu- 
dent, and he set about it with enthusiasm, 
keeping it a secret from his parents as he 
wished to surprise them with an evidence that 
his taste for natural history and distaste for 
medicine might, after all, lead to some practical 
end. 

Agassiz worked on the Brazilian fishes with 
an earnestness that well repaid the trust re- 
posed in him, and the first volume appeared in 
the autumn of 1828, when the editor was in his 
twenty-second year. The work was well re- 
ceived by all European naturalists, who felt 



286 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

that it furnished a necessary link in ichthyolog- 
ical history, and Agassiz received from Cuvier 
a letter of warm appreciation of its merits, and 
the promise to incorporate it into his new edi- 
tion of the " Regne Animal/' 

This success so encouraged him that he de- 
cided to undertake another work somewhat 
similar in character, and he therefore began his 
work on the fishes of Switzerland and Ger- 
many. 

During his preparation of the " Brazilian 
Fishes," Agassiz was buoyed up by the hope 
that he might be included in the list of those 
who were about to start on scientific tours, 
hoping either to join Humboldt's expedition to 
Asia, or a similar excursion to South America 
under the direction of another naturalist. 

He therefore undertook a regular course of 
training as a preparation for the journey, 
learning blacksmithing, carpentering, practis- 
ing sword and sabre exercises, and taking long 
walks day after day, loaded down with bags of 
plants and minerals. This course, he thought, 
would fit him to endure the disadvantages of 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 287 

travel through uncivilized countries, and it was 
a bitter disappointment to him to find -that he 
could obtain no place as assistant to any one 
contemplating foreign travel. 

However, he still kept on the path he had 
marked out for himself, and as a fine opportu- 
nity presented itself for studying the collection 
of fossil fishes in the museum of Munich, he at 
once undertook the preparation of a work on 
that subject. It was a fine chance for the 
young naturalist to show what he could do, as 
fossil fishes had up to that time received little 
attention, and it was Agassiz's own originality 
and vigor of thought that suggested the choice 
of this topic. 

He employed two artists to help him in the 
work which progressed rapidly in spite of the 
fact that the author was at the same time en- 
gaged on his Fresh- Water Fishes of Central 
Europe, and hard at work studying for his di- 
ploma. 

In the spring of 1830, Agassiz received the 
degree of Doctor of Medicine, being in his 
twenty-third year, and at the end of the same 



288 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

year left Munich for Switzerland, where he re- 
mained for a year working on the fossil fishes 
and fresh-water fishes, and practising medicine 
as often as opportunity offered. But he was 
restless for the larger life to be found in the 
scientific circles of a great city, and in the au- 
tumn of 1 83 1 started for Paris, though not with- 
out a certain dread of the future, as his financial 
prospects were anything but cheering. 

But his scientific life in his new home was so 
inspiring that it repaid all the loss he suffered 
in personal deprivations. Humboldt and Cu- 
vier received him with the greatest kindness, 
and the museum at Paris offered inexhaustible 
resources in the prosecution of his work on the 
fossil fishes. In this work Agassiz's aim was to 
determine to what geological period the differ- 
ent specimens belonged, and to trace the con- 
nection between the fishes of the past ages and 
those of the present time. 

This was not an easy task, as in many cases 
it was impossible to obtain enough of the skel- 
eton to distinguish the specimen without great 
difficulty. But Agassiz was undeterred by this 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 289 

circumstance. A tooth, a scale, or a spine 
served him as a guide into this wide field of 
research, and from these trifles his patient ener- 
gy would reconstruct the entire skeleton, and 
bring back to life again, as it were, the dead 
animal which the long centuries had carved in 
stone. The importance of this work, which 
would serve the twofold purpose of explaining 
the development of the different classes of fishes, 
and the succession of the layers of rock, as told 
by their presence or absence, was well under- 
stood by Agassiz, and it was a matter of great 
seriousness to him that his limited means should 
stand in the way of carrying on his studies to 
the best advantage. 

During the year he spent in Paris he received 
a generous loan from Humboldt, whose high 
appreciation of Agassiz's talent never dimin- 
ished, but Agassiz felt more and more the im- 
possibility of depending upon chance for a live- 
lihood, and in 1832 accepted a professorship at 
Neuchatel. His work on fossil fishes occupied 
him ten years, during which time he visited 
England, Germany, and France, for the pur- 

*9 



290 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

pose of studying the fossils in the various mu- 
seums. 

The publication of the first volume in 1833 at 
once placed Agassiz among the greatest living 
naturalists, and was received with the most dis- 
tinguished favor by all the scientific societies of 
Europe. 

In this work Agassiz made the very impor- 
tant discovery that the natural succession of the 
different classes of fishes, as regarded their de- 
velopment, also corresponded with the succes- 
sion of the geological epochs, as marked out by 
the recent studies in geology. 

While this work was in progress Agassiz 
also made some very interesting studies on the 
nature of the action of glaciers. Up to this time 
the theory about those great fields of moving 
ice had been based upon the convulsionist the- 
ories of the older geologists, and the presence 
of vast ice fields, and great boulders, in places 
where there seemed no apparent reason for their 
existence, was explained by supposing that nat- 
ure worked by fits and starts, and that there could 
be no other way of accounting for her actions. 



LOUIS AGASSTZ, 1807-1874. 291 

But from the year 1836 to 1846 Agassiz vis- 
ited all the glaciers of Europe, and studied 
them with the greatest care. In these excur- 
sions he was accompanied by other men of sci- 
ence, who gave him help in special ways, and 
he was thus able to make the most thorough 
study of glacial action. One member made a 
microscopic study of the red snow, and the ani- 
mal life it contained, another studied the flow- 
ers, another the temperature of the interior of 
the glaciers, and another the deposits or debris 
left by this slow movement. 

The geologists of all countries had long been 
puzzled over the presence of boulders, fossils, 
and the quantity of loose unstratified material 
called drift, which were scattered over various 
places, where their appearance did not corre- 
spond with the geological formation of the 
rocks, and Agassiz's bold theory of glacial 
action, which explained these phenomena on 
simple and reasonable grounds, was received 
with unmistakable satisfaction and admira- 
tion. 

Agassiz laid aside the theory of sudden con- 



292 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

vulsions of nature, and claimed that the glacial 
phenomena could be explained upon principles 
more in harmony with the ordinary workings of 
nature ; and his ten years' study of glaciers only 
confirmed a conclusion to which he had been 
led early in his investigations. 

According to this theory, the whole of the 
northern continent was once covered with ice 
which extended from the North Pole to the 
boundaries of Central Europe and Asia. Be- 
fore this ice period the whole of that region had 
been covered with a luxuriant vegetation and 
was inhabited by the great animals which are 
now found only in the torrid zone. Elephants, 
hippopotami, and enormous flesh-eating ani- 
mals wandered through the vast forests, and 
the rivers which flowed into the Arctic Ocean 
were the haunts of fishes and waterfowl, now 
only to be found in the streams of the tropics. 

This condition of things existed for long 
ages, during which the earth was covered with 
verdure from the equator to the uttermost 
north, and the teeming life of the tropics ex- 
tended to the polar regions. Then, by degrees, 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 293 

the whole aspect of nature changed, and from 
some unknown source, cold succeeded heat, and 
death came to take the place of life. Lakes, 
seas and rivers were frozen, and the myriad 
living creatures they contained were changed 
to inanimate forms; over the vast plains 
stretched a great mantle of ice, which touched 
the flowers, shrubs, and trees, as if by magic, 
and turned them to stone, while the huge 
beasts, wandering through the forests, or bask- 
ing in the sunlight of the northern shores, were 
overtaken by the same dreadful fate, which 
spread a shroud over the living face of nature 
and turned a scene of beauty to ruin and deso- 
lation. 

Ages after this catastrophe, the sun's beams 
melted the ice and snow, which slowly began 
their retreat toward the north, and the ice-fields 
and glaciers of Central Europe alone remain 
to remind the student of nature that the story 
they tell was a living reality, and not the fanci- 
ful imagining of the poet or romancer. 

The acceptance of this theory accounted for 
the presence in the Siberian rivers of those re- 



294 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

mains of gigantic animals whose counterparts 
are now to be found only in the tropics, and 
explained the appearance of fossils, boulders, 
and other deposits in places where their pres- 
ence had been hitherto unexplainable. And 
although it was elaborated during the years 
when Agassiz was busy upon zoological studies 
of the gravest importance, it lacked nothing of 
that conciseness, vigor, and attention to detail 
which distinguished all the work of this master, 
who considered every part of creation of equal 
interest and found zoology and geology alike 
but the means of reading more clearly the great 
design of the universe. 

In 1846 Agassiz came to the United States 
on a visit, having for its object the pursuit of his 
scientific studies. At this time, when his fame 
was world-wide, his theories were nowhere re- 
ceived with greater enthusiasm than in America, 
and it was a matter for no surprise that two 
years after his landing in the New World he 
was offered the chair of Natural History in 
Harvard University. 

From that time his scientific w r ork was con- 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 295 

fined to the continent and islands of America, 
and his many journeys, having for their object 
the study of zoology and geology, were all 
made in the interests of science in connection 
with those studies in the New World. 

Agassiz's most important contribution to sci- 
ence after his settlement in America was his 
report upon the Florida Reefs, a strip of rocks 
fringing the southern coast of Florida, which 
had long puzzled the American naturalists, who 
had so far been unable to agree as to their geo- 
logical formation. The Coast Survey of the 
United States was particularly anxious to have 
the question of their formation settled, both 
from a practical point of view in regard to nav- 
igation, and for scientific reasons, and Agassiz 
was asked to make an exploration of that re- 
gion in the interests of the Government. 

Agassiz accepted the commission with great 
eagerness, and made an exhaustive study of the 
reefs, arriving at the conclusion that these 
fringes of rocks, which were separated by deep 
channels, were not a freak of nature, but that 
the whole peninsula of Florida had been formed 



296 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

by successive circles of these coral reefs, the 
everglades being only filled up channels, and 
that the soft soil, now so shifting and uncertain, 
would in time present the firm appearance indi- 
cated by the older portions. 

The report was valuable to the Coast Survey, 
as it determined the nature of the soil, and in- 
dicated what localities might be available as 
offering stable foundations for light-houses, sig- 
nal stations, and the like. 

The life of Agassiz from the time of his com- 
ing to America was one of ceaseless activity, 
and his lectures at Cambridge and in Charles- 
ton, S. C, where he resided for some time, 
formed only a small part of his work. His con- 
tributions to science were of the greatest value, 
and during the first fifteen years of his residence 
in the United States his essays on the geo- 
graphical and geological distribution of animals ; 
on the natural history of the United States ; on 
the glacial phenomena of Maine, and kindred 
subjects, served to advance in a marked degree 
the sciences of geology and zoology, which were 
still in a process of formation, while the estab- 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 297 

lishment of several scientific schools, which 
have since attained to eminence, were likewise 
attributable to the same master-mind. 

In 1865 Agassiz made a journey to Brazil, 
having the twofold object of obtaining a needed 
rest from his usual work, and of making col- 
lections for the Museum of Natural History ; and 
this expedition was fruitful in scientific interest. 

He remained in Brazil something over a year, 
and was able to make a most satisfactory col- 
lection of Brazilian fishes, bringing away with 
him two thousand specimens obtained from the 
Amazon and its tributary streams and lakes. 
It was also a great source of pleasure to Agassiz 
to find, in the Brazilian tropics, evidences of the 
great ice-period, which proved to him that the 
glaciers had once covered that region, where 
now the rays of the sun are so powerful as to 
endanger life. 

In 1 87 1 Agassiz started out on another expe- 
dition, having for its object the study of the 
animals of the sea, for which purpose it was 
proposed to dredge the coast-waters down 
the Atlantic and up the Pacific as far as San 



298 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

Francisco. This work was especially attractive 
to Agassiz, as he believed that the study of the 
deep-sea animals would reveal many of the 
missing links between the fossil world and liv- 
ing species ; and, beside this, he also expected 
to find evidences that the glacial phenomena, 
familiar to the northern hemisphere, were also to 
be found in the southern, and thus add a stronger 
proof that his glacial theory was correct. 

The active work of the expedition began as 
soon as the Gulf Stream was reached, with the 
study of the Sargassum, or fields of drifting sea- 
weed, which abound in those regions, and which 
was filled with minute forms of life. Agassiz 
was able to make a very satisfactory study of 
the Sargassum, and this good beginning was fol- 
lowed up by dredgings in the Barbadoes, which 
revealed some living sponges, so much like the 
fossils he had previously studied that Agassiz 
felt that his theories of deep-sea dredging were 
already bringing him a golden harvest. 

On the coast of Montevideo Agassiz found 
strong evidences of glacial action, and on the 
coast of the Argentine Republic many interest- 



LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 299 

ing fossils were obtained from the huge boul- 
ders which were scattered everywhere ; while 
the geological formation of the coast of the 
Straits of Magellan gave still further evidence 
of the truth of his favorite theory in regard to 
glaciers. Here he found a moraine composed 
of boulders, pebbles, and gravel, polished and 
grooved, and bearing all the signs of glacial 
action, while the ice- and snow- fields glittering 
upon the slopes of the mountains could only re- 
mind him of the glaciers of the Alps, thus prov- 
ing to Agassiz that the ice period had extended 
over the southern as well as the northern conti- 
nents, coming in both cases from the poles and 
retreating eventually in the same directions. 
Agassiz studied the glacier regions of the south 
for several weeks, and then the vessel pro- 
ceeded on her way to new fields of investigation. 
A trip was made to the Galapagos Islands, 
interesting to naturalists because of their recent 
origin and their peculiar varieties of plants and 
animals, some of which are different from any 
known in other parts of the world ; and here 
Agassiz made some important studies on the 



300 LOUIS AGASSIZ, 1807-1874. 

formation of volcanic islands, of which this group 
formed an instance. 

The voyage was then continued up the Paci- 
fic, the original plan to proceed to San Fran- 
cisco being carried out by their reaching that 
city in August, 1872, having accomplished very 
nearly all that they set out to do. This was 
Agassiz's last scientific excursion ; and, after his 
return to Cambridge, he busied himself with 
plans for a School of Natural History to be es- 
tablished somewhere on the coast of Massachu- 
setts, and which was to be in operation in the 
summer, for the benefit of pupils and teachers 
from all over the country ; an important plan, 
as it has resulted in the founding of various 
summer schools which have greatly advanced 
the study of science. 

Lectures, essays, and study filled up another 
year, and in December, 1873, the work of the 
great student came to a close, and he passed 
away from earth leaving behind him the fruits 
of a well-spent life in which selfish aims and 
enjoyments had no share, and which was of in- 
estimable value to science. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

TYNDALL, AND DIAMAGNETISM AND RADIANT 
HEAT, 1825. 

The study of light and heat as a science may 
be said to have begun with Aristotle, who was 
the first great philosopher to inquire into their 
origin. Aristotle claimed that light and heat 
arose from the friction caused by the swift mo- 
tion of the stars through the air, and further that 
it was the nature of all motion to produce heat. 

This doctrine of Aristotle is interesting be- 
cause modern science, calling to its aid all the 
multitudinous inventions that ingenuity can de- 
vise, has reached the conclusion that heat is a 
condition of motion of the particles of material 
bodies. Yet the resemblance between this re- 
sult and the speculation of the old philospher, 
though noticeable, is merely superficial, and no 
certain progress was made in the study of heat 



302 JOHN TYNDALL, 1825, 



till philosphers learned to submit their guesses 
to the test of experiment. 

The progress of science is not a steady ad- 
vance, there are continual haltings by the way, 
and even temporary retreats ; a long period of 
stagnation may precede some brilliant discovery 
or powerful and far-reaching generalization that 
will at once rouse investigation and usher in 
a period of great progress ; this was true in a 
marked degree of the study of light. 

Early speculation taught that light was an 
emanation thrown out in straight lines from the 
luminous body. But during the seventeenth 
century the theory that light consisted of waves 
or undulations coming from the heated body 
was powerfully advocated by Huyghens. New- 
ton, however, who made many interesting and 
important investigations in light, strongly ad- 
vocated the emission theory, and the weight of 
his great authority turned the scale against the 
wave theory, in consequence of which it was in 
disrepute for nearly a hundred years, during 
which time very little progress was made in the 
knowledge of light. 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 303 

During the life of Newton it had been estab- 
lished by Roemer, a Danish astronomer, that it 
took a certain time for light to pass from a 
heated body to the eye ; for by calculations 
based on the times when the moons of the plan- 
et Jupiter were observed to be eclipsed, he had 
found that light travelled at the rate of 185,000 
miles in a second. 

Just at the beginning of the present century 
Thomas Young, an English scientist, brought 
foward new and convincing evidence of the 
truth of the wave theory, and showed how 
waves of light could be made to interfere with 
each other and produce darkness. This was 
the opening of a period of great progress. 
Immediately succeeding Young came Fresnel, 
the great French physicist, who contributed 
more than any one else to the development 
of the wave theory, and whose labors, together 
with those of such men as Arago and Foucault, 
at once brought the science of light almost to 
the position it occupies to-day. 

But it is not true that all waves coming from 
a hot body are visible ; even if it were not hot 



304 JOHN TYNDALL, 1 82 5. 

enough to give out waves of light it would 
send off waves which, though invisible, are cap- 
able of giving the sensation of warmth. These 
invisible waves, or heat radiations as they are 
sometimes called, have been made the subject 
of many careful investigations, and prominent 
among those who have devoted themselves to 
their study we find Professor John Tyndall, 
whose studies in radiant heat and diamagnetism 
have given him an honored place in the scien- 
tific world. 

Tyndall was born in the village of Leighlin 
Bridge, Ireland, in 1820. His parents were 
poor, and this poverty brought with it the usual 
gifts in developing the mind and ingenuity of 
the little lad who was to owe all his success in 
life to his own individual efforts. 

Like his little companions in the same condi- 
tion of life, he played about the village streets, 
made excursions into the surrounding country, 
and found life a pleasant thing ; for poverty to 
the country child brings with it none of that 
sordid wretchedness which so early leaves its 
blighting impress on the soul of the city child, 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 305 

to whom it comes without any grace or bright- 
ening charm. 

Thus circumstanced, in spite of his parents' 
humble means, the boy's life passed pleas- 
antly enough ; and the lessons which nature 
taught him in his wanderings around Leighlin 
Bridge were the most useful he could have 
learned. He grew up a part of the beautiful 
world around him, and the songs of the birds, 
the blossoming of the flowers, and the thousand 
experiences of life with which he was always 
familiar, seemed to belong to him as much as 
the coloring and perfume were a part of the 
wild flowers he gathered. 

And, besides this love and appreciation of 
nature, the boy was fortunate in the books 
which he read as a child, and which left an in- 
delible mark on his character. His father was 
a man of strong religious principle, and the 
volumes in the family library included, with the 
Bible, the principal works of the most cele- 
brated writers on theology ; and, although this 
subject would have ordinarily no charms for a 
child, yet the fervid imagination, the poetic feel- 



306 JOHN TYNDALL, 1 82 5. 

ing, and above all the high ideality which made 
the duties of common life seem a religious cere- 
mony, could not fail to make a lasting impres- 
sion on the mind of a sensitive and imaginative 
child ; while the Bible, with its wonderful imag- 
ery and powerful descriptions of nature, to- 
gether with its human interest, all tinged with 
the deepest religious inspiration, was no less a 
source of fruitful teaching to the child, who read 
and re-read the glowing pages until he knew 
the volume almost by heart, and the sublime 
style of the Hebrew prophets had grown as fa- 
miliar to him as the voice of Nature in the out- 
door world. 

Thus, when at seven or eight his school-days 
began, young Tyndall started up the hill of 
learning with two priceless aids — a loving inti- 
macy with nature, and a familiarity with the 
grandest literature that the world has ever 
known. 

His school days reached to his nineteenth 
year, during which time he pursued the usual 
course of study, and showed no particular tal- 
ent for anything, excepting perhaps mathemat- 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 307 

ics, a taste for which developed itself during the 
last two years of his school life. He began the 
study of civil engineering after leaving school, 
intending to make it his profession, and for 
three years diligently studied the preparatory 
course, meeting with the most gratifying re- 
sults. 

But in 1842 he attended a course of lectures 
at a Mechanics' Institute, which, combined with 
a desire for larger study which had come to 
him the year before, opened wider fields of 
thought and gave him a deep interest in sub- 
jects unconnected with his special work. 

But for five years longer he kept on in the 
way he had marked out for himself, completing 
his course of study and practising engineering 
with marked success. Then, in 1847, he was 
appointed teacher in Queenswood College, 
Hampshire, and during the year that he spent 
in this place he became so interested in chemis- 
try and other branches of physical science, 
that he determined to leave England and take 
a course of scientific study at some German 
university. 



308 JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 

Marburg, in Hesse-Cassel, was chosen as 
the place of study, and here, in company with 
the friend whose lectures in chemistry had first 
interested him in natural science, Tyndall spent 
two years engaged in absorbing study. His 
student life was of the simplest kind, as money 
was scarce, and the end he had in view, the ac- 
quiring of knowledge for its own sake, did not 
point to any large remuneration from a mate- 
rial stand-point in the future. He studied some- 
times sixteen hours a day, and although his 
hopes of success were sometimes overclouded 
by the gloomy doubts which often visit the 
imaginative mind, his resolve never faltered ; 
and if his life at Marburg had borne no other 
fruit, it yet would have been rich in the de- 
velopment of that loftiness of purpose and stern 
devotion to duty, which at this period became 
such marked characteristics of the young stu- 
dent. 

But Marburg did bring other and great prizes 
to him. He was under the teaching of Bun- 
sen, the celebrated chemist, whose lectures on 
electro-chemistry, or the chemical changes which 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1 82 5. 309 

occur through electricity, attracted Tyndall at 
once, and at the same time he attended an 
illustrated course of lectures on radiant heat, or 
heat which comes in rays from the heated body, 
in the same manner that the heat of the sun 
reaches the earth. These studies were in the 
direct line of experimental research, and Tyn- 
dall was thus easily led to a point where he 
began independent investigation. 

Faraday's important discovery of diamagnet- 
ism, was then attracting great attention in the 
scientific world. Faraday had shown that all 
matter could be influenced by magnetism, and 
had divided bodies into magnetic and diamao- 
netic. A bar of a magnetic substance when 
suspended between the poles of a magnet 
would point in the direction of the line joining 
the two poles. But if the bar were diamag- 
netic, it would set itself cross-wise, so that its 
two ends were as far away as they could get 
from the poles of the magnet. 

But further investigation had brought to light 
the fact that certain substances which were dia- 
magnetic, ceased to be so when discovered in 



3IO JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 

the form of crystals. Thus, a piece of bismuth 
suspended between the poles of a magnet would 
point across the line joining the two poles, 
showing that bismuth was a diamagnetic sub- 
stance, but a crystal of bismuth when sus- 
pended did not follow this direction, and the 
same was found to be true of many other sub- 
stances. 

In 1849 Tyndall began the study of this in- 
teresting phenomenon, and for several years 
carried on experiments in magnetism and elec- 
tricity with the hope of arriving at some satis- 
factory conclusion; and, by 1855, he may be 
said to have reached results which were so im- 
portant as to place his name foremost in the 
ranks of those who have studied this subject. 

Crystallization, or the mysterious force by 
which charcoal becomes a diamond, common 
clay a sapphire or ruby, and by which other 
transformations are effected, had been an in- 
teresting subject of study from the time that 
science had first revealed that the same sub- 
stance might exist either in the crystalline or 
non-crystalline state, and it was in this field of 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1 825. 311 

thought that Tyndall labored in his experiments 
on diamagnetism. 

He claimed that the apparently contradictory 
actions of some diamagnetic substances and 
their crystals, were due to the structure of the 
substance or crystal, or the peculiar ways in 
which the particles forming the body were join- 
ed together. This property or peculiarity he 
stated was not simply characteristic of certain 
substances, but that, as nature acted by general 
laws, it would be possible, by following out the 
suggestions contained in this fact, to arrive at the 
most important discoveries in relation to the 
structure of the earth, and its magnetic actions ; 
and that just as the fall of an apple suggested 
to Newton the theory of gravitation, so the re- 
fusal of a crystal to act in accordance with the 
laws that governed the uncrystallized substance 
might point to a law of nature which, if discov- 
ered, would unravel many of the mysteries 
which puzzle the scientific mind. 

Tyndall also demonstrated that polarity, or 
the power of a substance to attract one pole of 
a magnetic needle and repel the other, was also 



312 JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 

a property of diamagnetic substances, with the 
difference that, if placed under the same mag- 
netizing influence, a bar of diamagnetic sub- 
stance would show north polarity at that end 
which in a bar of iron or other magnetic sub- 
stance would be a south pole. It was also 
shown that the attractive force of magnetism is 
infinitely greater than diamagnetism, the mag- 
netism of iron exceeding the diamagnetism of 
bismuth two and a half million times. 

In 1859 Tyndall began his researches in ra- 
diant heat, a subject of great interest, not only 
to scientists but to all who are desirous of un- 
derstanding the relations which exist between 
the forces of nature and the laws of life. 

The power of the atmosphere to absorb the 
heat of the sun was then attracting attention, as 
it is a question bearing directly upon human 
interests, as well as being a valuable subject for 
scientific inquiry. 

The Italian physicist, Melloni, had made some 
very important researches in radiant heat, and 
had given special study to its passage through 
different substances. 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 313 

A body which allows heat to pass through it 
is said to have the property of diathermancy, 
just as a body which allows light to pass 
through it is said to have the property of trans- 
parency. And Melloni, by a series of interesting 
experiments, established several laws in regard 
to the diathermancy of different substances. 

Rock salt was found to possess great diather- 
mancy, as it allowed nearly all the heat to pass 
through ; glass, on the contrary, which was as 
transparent as rock salt, was found to have lit- 
tle power of transmitting heat ; ice and alum, 
equally transparent, have slight diathermancy, 
while clear and smoky quartz, one as transpar- 
ent as glass, and the other nearly opaque, 
alike transmit considerable heat. 

Tyndall's experiments related chiefly to the 
diathermancy of gases, and proved that the 
heat in gases and vapors was absorbed and ra- 
diated with as great differences as those which 
marked its passage through liquids and solids, 
and that it was governed by certain laws which 
played an important part in the distribution of 
heat over the world. 



3H JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 

He found that dry air permitted heat to 
pass freely, but that watery vapor was pos- 
sessed of great power for absorbing the heat, 
and this conclusion was made the basis of a 
most interesting hypothesis in regard to the 
distribution of heat over the globe. 

Countries distinguished by a moist climate, 
like England or Ireland, were thus particularly 
favored, as the watery vapor, which Tyndall 
likened to a blanket, absorbed the heat which 
would otherwise have passed off by radiation 
from the earth, and kept a sufficient warmth to 
protect vegetation, just as clothing protects the 
human frame ; and Tyndall said that if this 
watery vapor were removed from the air for a 
single summer night, the sun would rise the 
next day upon an island held fast in the iron 
grip of frost, with every plant and flower 
dead. 

The absence of watery vapor in the atmos- 
phere would, in like manner, account for the 
terrible cold of dry climates, such as Central 
Asia, and the nights of the Sahara desert. 
This theory was of special importance to geol- 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 315 

ogy, as it explained the origin of the glacial era ; 
for as the earth was passing through its cooling 
period, the oceans, as is now the case, would 
naturally be warmer than the land, owing to the 
presence of watery vapor over their surface 
which served as a blanket to keep in the heat ; 
the dry air over the land would permit the heat 
to pass off rapidly into space, on the contrary ; 
and thus the rapid cooling of the land turned 
the mountains into receivers of the condensing 
vapors, which formed into the great glaciers 
which once covered the earth. 

Another very interesting study of radiant 
heat, made by Professor Tyndall, related to the 
separation of the invisible from the visible waves 
or rays of light. 

The fact that the light of the sun as reflected 
from the moon has very little heating power in 
proportion to its illuminating effect, had sug- 
gested to Melloni the idea of a set of experi- 
ments which resulted in the separation of heat 
from light on a smaller scale, and Tyndall made 
some successful experiments showing that the 
reverse was also true. In these experiments 



316 JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 

he separated the visible from the invisible rays 
of the sun, the lime light, and electric light, al- 
lowing the dark rays, which have the principal 
heating power, to pass through the intercept- 
ing medium that he used, while at the same 
time not a ray of light was received. With 
these dark rays he produced fire, melted met- 
als, and obtained the different-colored rays of 
light, thus proving that the invisible rays of the 
sun may carry on the mightiest operations of 
nature, just as surely as the flower may give 
forth its fragrance in the darkness. 

In this connection Tyndall invented a respi- 
rator for the use of firemen. This instrument, 
which consisted of layers of moist wool, dry 
wool, charcoal fragments, and caustic lime, en- 
closed in a wire gauze, was found to be a great 
protection to firemen who were unable to carry 
on their duties in consequence of the smoke 
from the burning building. The respirator ef- 
fectually destroyed the bad effects of the smoke, 
and allowed the firemen to breathe in a room 
filled with the densest smoke without discom- 
fort. 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 317 

In his researches on light Tyndall also gave 
his attention to sound, and its relation to heat. 
Seamen had often been puzzled by the fact 
that the signals used during fogs often failed to 
convey the warnings in fine weather, and that 
the guns, gongs, and powerful whistles heard 
miles away during the rain could not be distin- 
guished sometimes at short distances when the 
sun was shining. Tyndall suggested that this 
was due to the presence of invisible clouds 
which formed a barrier to the waves of sound, 
just as a dark cloud shuts out the sunshine ; 
and, pursuing this subject later on he found that 
certain vapors and gases possessed the power 
of conveying sound in the same order as their 
absorption of radiant heat. 

Some of the experiments leading to this con- 
clusion related to the conversion of light into 
sound. Starting from the fact that thin disks 
of metal would produce musical sounds when 
struck by an intermittent beam of light, Profes- 
sor Tyndall carried on a number of experiments 
which proved to his satisfaction that such a 
beam of light striking a highly absorbent vapor 



318 JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 

would even produce a more intense sound than 
that produced by a solid. The test experiment 
consisted of an arrangement by which the light 
struck the vapor only at intervals, the sounds 
being caused by the alternate expansion and 
contraction of the vapor, it being found that va- 
pors and gases which allowed the heat to pass 
through them would produce no sounds what- 
ever. Chloride of methyl was found to give 
forth sounds which, when conveyed to the ear 
by a rubber tube, resembled the peal of an or- 
gan in intensity. 

In his pursuit of science Tyndall has added 
the advantages of travel, and his study on the 
glaciers of the Alps and the Falls of Niagara 
have an especial interest from the fact that they 
were carried on in the midst of dangers that 
might well have deterred a less devoted seeker 
after truth. 

Professor Tyndall possesses a remarkable 
faculty for making his subjects of study under- 
stood by the unscientific mind, and his lectures 
in England and America have done much to 
make the study of science and its high objects 



JOHN TYNDALL, 1825. 319 

popular, while his uncompromising love of 
truth, and his unimpeachable honesty in its pur- 
suit have won him distinction from his fellow- 
laborers in the fields of knowledge. 



CHAPTER XV. 

KIRCHOFF, AND THE STORY TOLD BY SUNBEAM 
AND STARBEAM, 1 8 24- 1 88 7. 

Among the many discoveries that have made 
the ninteenth century famous, none have been 
more interesting than those which relate to the 
physical constitution of the universe, and which 
tell us of what the stars are made. 

This subject has always been a fascinating 
one to mankind, and was much discussed by the 
old philosophers, who offered various theories 
to account for the formation of the universe, 
and wrote many long treatises to make the facts 
agree with their theories. Air, fire, and water, 
together or singly, were regarded by some as 
the primal substances from which all things were 
made, while others held a more elaborate and 
intellectual creed. 

Plato, the great Greek philosopher, taught 



KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 321 

that the universe was an animal in the form of 
a sphere, the most perfect of figures, made of 
an imperishable material, and with a circular 
motion. To the universe was then given a 
soul, and within its boundaries were placed 
gods, mortals, and the animals of the air, the 
earth, and the sea. The gods were made of 
fire, were circular in form, and were scattered 
over the heavens among the stars. Each star 
had a soul, which at some time entered a human 
body, forming its immortal part, and after living 
a certain time on the earth might return to its 
home if the years had been righteously spent. 

This theory, which was perhaps but an alle- 
gory veiling some belief that might have been 
considered impious by the vacillating Greeks, is 
important from the fact that it embodies the 
idea that had existed from the earliest times 
among the mystics, that there was a certain 
unity and identity among the various phenom- 
ena of nature, and that the universe should be 
considered as a whole made up of many di- 
verse parts. 

The discovery of the law of gravitation, and 

21 



322 KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 

its application by Herschel to the star systems, 
established the harmony of the motions of the 
heavenly bodies, and brought the earth into re- 
lationship with the most distant stars. It was 
the first convincing proof that the earth was but 
a member of the one great system which is 
called the universe, and it brought with it a sug- 
gestion that was full of meaning to those who 
were interested in the question of the physical 
constitution of the universe. 

The nebular hypothesis answered this ques- 
tion partly, but left a wide field for speculation, 
and it is to the German physicist, Kirchoff, that 
we are indebted for the discovery of a method 
by which the nature of the substances which 
compose the sun and stars may be determined. 

To understand the work of Kirchoff we must 
start with Newton's discoveries as to the nat- 
ure of light. 

The beautiful colors displayed in the rain- 
bow, as well as in drops of dew, in glass prisms, 
precious stones, and other substances, had 
always been of great interest to philosophers, 
and many fanciful reasons were given for these 



KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 323 

appearances, but Newton was the first to ex- 
plain the phenomena as due to the nature of 
light, and not to some quality in the substance 
through which the light passed or on which it 
rested. 

Starting with the well-known fact that the 
white or colorless light from the sun would sep- 
arate into rays of different colors correspond- 
ing to the hues of the rainbow when made to 
pass through a prism, he carried on a number 
of experiments which finally led to one of the 
most interesting discoveries in science. He 
found that the rays always arranged themselves 
in the same order — violet, indigo, blue, green, 
yellow, orange and red — no matter what sub- 
stance they passed through, and from this he 
deduced the theory that white light consists of 
rays of different colors which are simply sepa- 
rated by the action of the prism. This theory, 
which would account for all the prismatic colors 
shown in various substances, was conclusively 
proved by Newton's collecting the different 
rays which had been separated and bringing 
them together again to a common focus by 



324 KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 

passing them through a lens, when a band of 
white light was produced. 

From this discovery Newton claimed that all 
color arises from the arrangement of the par- 
ticles of bodies in such a manner that certain 
rays of light will be reflected, and certain 
others absorbed by them. 

Important as this discovery was it attracted 
little notice, and it was more than a hundred 
years afterward before the subject received any 
particular attention. But, in 1815, the German 
physicist, Fraunhofer, made a discovery in re- 
lation to the composition of white light which 
led to the most important results. 

The band of rainbow colors which is pro- 
duced by causing a ray of sunlight to pass 
through a prism, is called the solar spectrum. 
When the beam of sunlight that falls on the 
prism comes through a large opening the col- 
ors seen in the spectrum overlap each other, so 
that often the middle of the spectrum, where all 
the colors overlap, appears white, only the two 
ends showing colors, one end being red and 
yellow and the other end blue and violet. But 



KIRCHOFF, 1 824-1 887. 32 5 

when the opening through which the sunlight 
streams upon the prism is made narrower the 
colors overlap less, and if it is a very narrow 
slit there is scarcely any overlapping at all, so 
that there will be a continuous change in the 
color from one end to the other, each different 
ray having its own place. In this case if rays 
of any one color are absent the part of the 
spectrum which they would occupy if present 
will appear black. Fraunhofer made use of 
this arrangement and allowed a beam of sun- 
light that came through a very narrow crack or 
slit to fall on the prism, and on examining the 
spectrum with a telescope observed that the 
different colors were crossed transversely by a 
great number of fine dark lines. Fraunhofer 
counted over five hundred of these lines, but 
their number has since been raised to thou- 
sands. 

By a series of careful experiments Fraun- 
hofer came to the conclusion that these dark 
lines always occurred in the same order when 
the solar spectrum was shown, whether the 
light came directly from the sun or was re- 



326 KIRCH0FF, 1824-1887. 

fleeted from the moon or planets ; and another 
set of experiments proved that the light from 
the fixed stars gave a spectrum in which the 
dark lines were seen to differ in position and 
number from those in the solar spectrum, and 
from this he was led to believe that the dark 
lines were caused by some special property of 
the sun's light, which thus differed from the 
liorht of the stars. The attention of the scien- 
tific world was at once turned toward this new 
field of investigation, and the science of spec- 
troscopy, or the study of the colored rays of 
light, was pursued with much eagerness. 

Sunlight, direct and reflected, the light of the 
stars, the electric spark, the flame of a candle, 
and the colored flames produced by burning dif- 
ferent metals, together with the light from 
gases and vapors, were all subjected to the 
most careful study. The results were marked 
in a set of tables which indicated the spectrum 
of each substance, and thus a knowledge of the 
spectra of many different metals and vapors was 
attained. The dark and bright lines which 
crossed the spectra of the different substances 



KIRCHOFF, 1 824-1 887. 327 



were also marked according to their number 
and position, and in this manner it became as 
easy to recognize a certain mineral by its spec- 
trum as to distinguish a flower by its perfume. 

It was found that the spectra of glowing hot 
solid or liquid bodies are continuous and show 
no trace of the fine black lines. The spectra of 
vapors and gases, on the other hand, showed 
simply a number of fine bright lines of different 
colors according to their position in the spec- 
trum. Thus the spectrum of white-hot iron is 
simply a continuous colored band with no dark 
lines in it, and so does not differ from that given 
by any other hot solid or liquid substance. But 
the spectrum of the vapor of iron consists of an 
immense number of fine bright lines in all parts 
of the spectrum, which are seen on a dark back- 
ground, while in the sun spectrum we see a 
series of dark lines on a colored ground. 
These spectra of vapors are highly character- 
istic. 

Now the spectrum of sodium vapor consists 
of two fine yellow lines ; it is also observed that 
in the sun spectrum there are two fine black 



328 KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 

lines in the yellow part of the spectrum that 
exactly match the two yellow lines of sodium. 
Kirchoff discovered that when the light from a 
glowing solid body which shows no dark lines 
in its spectrum is made to pass through the 
vapor of sodium it will then have two dark lines 
exactly like those in the solar spectrum. Fur- 
ther experiments established the fact that when- 
ever light which had passed through the vapor 
of a substance was examined, dark lines were 
found in its spectrum corresponding to the 
bright lines which the vapor would give if it 
were itself the source of light. 

On the basis of these splendid results Kirch- 
off built up his theory of the physical constitu- 
tion of the sun. 

Taking the bright lines in the spectra of iron, 
nickel, copper, zinc and many other metals, he 
found that they were identical with the dark 
lines in the solar spectrum, as regarded number 
and position, and he was therefore led to the 
conclusion that the sun was a glowing solid or 
liquid mass whose light passed through an at- 
mosphere of luminous vapors, which contained 



KIRCHOFF, 1 824-1 887. 329 

many of the substances which compose the 
earth. 

This theory, which seemed to be upheld by 
the most convincing proofs, was immediately 
perceived to be the most reasonable that had 
yet been offered as to the nature of the sun, and 
scientists at once set to work to see whether 
its acceptance might not lead to a true knowl- 
edge of the physical constitution of all the heav- 
enly bodies. 

The light of the stars was found to give a 
similar spectrum to that of the sun, as regarded 
the appearance of dark lines, and, after many 
interesting experiments, the conclusion was 
reached that many of the stars have nearly the 
same physical structure as the sun, and the 
dark lines in their spectra indicate that many of 
the metals that we are familiar with on the 
earth exist also in them. 

Further study of the light of the stars has 
resulted in placing them in groups according to 
the appearance of their spectra. Thus the 
stars which shine with a white light, and give 
spectra crossed by a few broad dark bands 



330 KIRCH0FF, 1 824-1 887. 

form one group, to which belong the great star 
Sirius and many of the brightest stars in the 
heavens. The red-colored stars give different 
spectra and form another group. Those stars 
which shine with a yellow light, and whose 
spectra are crossed by many fine dark lines, 
form another group, and to this it is supposed 
that the sun belongs. 

It was thought by many astronomers that 
nebulae would be seen to be merely groups of 
very fine stars, if our telescopes were only 
powerful enough to discover them ; but the 
spectroscope has given a decisive answer to 
the idea. The spectra of nebulae are found 
to be made up of bright lines, showing that 
they are simply masses of glowing vapors or 
gases. 

Spectrum analysis, or the study of the col- 
ored rays of light, has had an effect upon the 
study of the universe second only to that of the 
discovery of the law of gravitation, and it is im- 
possible to foresee the great results it may lead 
to. Already it has brought a knowledge of the 
nature of the remotest stars and the scarcely 



KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 331 

discernible nebulae, and with the increased fa- 
cilities which more delicate optical instruments 
may bring, we can hardly calculate the impor- 
tance of its powers. 

And it is the more remarkable that this won- 
derful agent may be of as much use in the me- 
chanic arts as in solving the great problems 
of astronomy. The use of the spectroscope, in 
connection with the microscope, has led to the 
detection of certain substances in a drop of 
blood the size of the head of a pin which could 
never have been discovered by any other pro- 
cess, and the same subtle power has given to 
the world several new metals whose presence 
had never been suspected until the lines in the 
spectrum indicated their existence. 

These metals have, for the most part, been 
named for the colors of the lines in the spec- 
trum. Rubidium, which is found in many 
plants, as cocoa, tea, coffee, oak and others is 
shown by two dark-red lines ; caesium gives 
two intense blue lines ; indium is marked by 
two characteristic lines of an indigo blue ; and 
thallium, which gives a vivid green color, is 



332 KIRCHOFF, 1824-1887. 

named from the Greek word which means a 
ofreen branch. 

Thus the spectroscope reveals the unseen 
and unsuspected in nature, and brings to light 
forces as subtle as those which paint the flowers 
. and give music to the winds. 




CHARLES DARWIN. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 



As, in the study of a flower, the botanist in- 
cludes not only the color, form, and perfume, 
but the internal structure and the conditions 
which have produced a rose in one place and a 
lily in another, so it is in the study of all the 
natural sciences. 

Behind the gem, or flower, or shell lies the 
force that produced it, and the flash of the dia- 
mond, the tint of the rose, and the pearly cham- 
bers that once held a living form all tell the 
story of the power, circumstance, and condition 
to which they owe their existence. 

Thus, whether the naturalist studies the his- 
tory of the sun, the earth, a leaf, or a drop of 
dew, he studies the forces which produced 
them ; and it has been the aim of science to in- 



334 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

vestigate these forces and to define their laws 
as clearly as possible. 

Every branch of natural history records some 
facts that have been found out by certain spe- 
cial workers, and geology, botany, zoology, and 
physics are merely terms which express the 
sum of knowledge that has been gained con- 
cerning the history of the earth as related by 
the rocks, the laws of vegetation, of animal life, 
and of the hidden forces of nature as shown in 
electricity, chemistry, heat and other agents. 

And of all these studies none have been 
found more interesting to naturalists than those 
of the forces which relate to and govern life, 
whether it be life as expressed in the animal or 
vegetable kingdoms. 

The student has found that after he has 
counted the stamens and pistils of a flower and 
assigned it its place in the world, there still 
remains the mystery of its existence, the power 
that passed away from it with its separation 
from the stem, and allied it to the earth and 
stones and other dead matter around it, 

And the same is true of the animal kingdom. 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 335 

The bird that falls by the sportsman's gun, ere 
the echo of its song has died away is changed 
in a moment of time from a creature with will, 
and power, and voice, to an object as senseless 
as the withered flower. If the dead bird were 
examined all its organs would be found in their 
places, but the mysterious force called life 
would have departed — flown away as invisibly 
as the perfume steals from the flower. 

The science which treats of the life-force — its 
laws, limitations, and capabilities — is called biol- 
ogy, and is one of the latest developed of all 
the sciences, though even in the early ages of 
the world some attempt was made to grasp the 
meaning of life and its strange negation, death. 

But, for the most part, these attempts ended 
in definitions which left no new light on the 
subject. " Life is the breath of God, "said the 
old sages, and any effort to find out the princi- 
ples governing its development would have 
been deemed unphilosophical in an age where 
all experiment was ridiculed and all questions of 
natural science were answered by the reason 
alone. 



336 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

The old belief in the possibility of finding 
the elixir of life which would confer immortality 
resulted, as has been seen, in a knowledge of 
laws of chemistry which might have been unre- 
vealed for ages, but for this impelling motive. 

And strange as it may appear, the old alche- 
mists, who seemed to grope blindly in the dark, 
were after all on the true path, for it is to chem- 
istry that we owe much of our knowledge of 
the laws that govern life, and the ignis fatuus 
of the Middle Ages has thus become the torch 
that has led modern science into the ways of 
truth. 

In the eighteenth century Lamarck advanced 
some views in regard to the different forms of 
animal life which may be accepted as the def- 
inite beginning of modern biology. 

Lamarck suggested that the varying species 
of animals were perhaps due to such influences 
as climate, soil, food, and other things, and 
that the appearance and instincts of animals 
might change just as much under special con- 
ditions as a plant may be changed at the will 
of a florist. 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 337 

These changes would, of course, only occur 
at great intervals of time, as nature works 
slowly ; and the study of fossils and their con- 
nection with living species would thus not only 
be useful to the biologist, but to the geologist, 
in determining the ages of the different strata 
of the earth. 

Historical research, reaching back to the re- 
motest times, can arrive at no period when 
wheat, the highest developed of all the cereals, 
was not found in its present form. And, as it is 
well-known that this grain must have been 
found originally in a wild state, whence it was 
rescued by the tribes that were exchanging bar- 
barism for civilization, some idea of the length 
of time necessary to effect such a transforma- 
tion may be obtained. 

Thus the ears of wheat, sculptured on the 
tombs of the kings who ruled in those far-off 
ages, tell us that behind the nations called the 
oldest, stretch long vistas of time, and that 
Egyptian, Babylonian, and Hindoo civilization 
are but things of yesterday compared to the 
countless ages that went before. 



338 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

And so the fossil found in the rock may tell 
its story ; and, as its form differs from the living 
animal, we may judge of the long period of 
time that must have elapsed, and what vital dif- 
ference of conditions must have occurred to 
bring about the change. 

These views of Lamarck were also held in 
some degree by Buffon and other naturalists of 
the period, but they were never popularly ac- 
cepted, and it remained for another generation 
to reap the harvest of the seed thus sown. 

Chief among those who have made the sub- 
ject prominent in the nineteenth century was 
Charles Darwin, who was born in Shrewsbury, 
England, in 1809. Darwin's early love for nat- 
ural history was developed in a marked degree 
during his college life by his study of geology, 
which first led him to take an interest in the 
succession of life on the earth, and it was 
while he was pondering over the views of the 
opposing schools of geology that he began 
to seriously think of the great questions of 
the development of different forms of animal 
life. 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 339 

His love for natural science brought him into 
notice ; and, when he was but twenty-two years 
old, he was appointed naturalist of a govern- 
ment surveying party which intended visiting 
the coasts of South America and the islands of 
the Pacific. 

This voyage occupied five years, and left 
Darwin with no choice of a profession, as his 
special work was from that time as much a ne- 
cessity of his life as his love for it was deep 
and abiding. The Western World fascinated the 
young naturalist, and all the varying forms of 
tropical life, from the gigantic palms to the flow- 
ers which sprinkled the earth like stars, and from 
the huge fossils, which told of other ages, to the 
tiny lizards which gleamed like fire-flies in and 
out among the rank grass, were alike full of 
interest. 

The collections made during this time were 
very important, including plants, insects, birds, 
reptiles, fish, fossils, and everything that could 
illustrate the flora and fauna of South Amer- 
ica, Australia, and the Pacific islands, and the 
results of the voyage were given to the world 



340 • DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

in a book called the " Zoology of the Voy- 
age of the Beagle," of which Darwin was the 
editor. 

The cruise of the Beagle may be said to 
have formed the education of Darwin as a nat- 
uralist, an education wider and broader than 
any vouchsafed to so young a naturalist before, 
as it included a study of the forms of life in re- 
gions practically unknown, and occurred at a 
period of life when the young student was not 
yet hampered by the fixed ideas of those in 
authority. 

It was during this voyage that Darwin first 
began to think of the origin of the different 
kinds of animals, and to wonder how far circum- 
stances and special conditions went in chang- 
ing one species to another almost entirely dif- 
ferent. 

And this question, which it was the aim of 
his life to settle, he studied patiently for the 
next twenty-one years. In the grounds around 
his house and in the conservatories, aquariums, 
and rooms for collections he studied the phe- 
nomena of plant and animal life from the ear- 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 341 

liest stages to the latest ; comparing his con- 
clusions with the views of all the great modern 
scientists, whose works found ready welcome 
to his library. 

These studies were so exact and thorough 
that Darwin gained a reputation for accuracy 
which was of great service to him when he 
brought out the great theory which was des- 
tined to meet with such bitter opposition. 

As the result of his years of labor he pub- 
lished in 1857 his great work on the " Origin of 
Species/' which has done more to change the 
current of scientific thought than any other 
work of the century. 

Although the great central thought of the 
book was not original with Darwin, it was to his 
untiring- efforts and exhaustive studies that its 
acceptance by the scientific world was due. 
His wide experience and years of careful inves- 
tigation gave his words a special value, while 
the generalization, or summing-up of the scat- 
tered facts, developed the hint of the older nat- 
uralists into the almost impregnable theory 
which Darwin sought to make it. 



342 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

In "The Origin of Species " all the different 
varieties of animals are accounted for as due to 
changes in circumstances, on the theory that 
any organ of an animal which is not used will 
gradually become useless, and one that is 
much used, or put to uses for which it was not 
at first intended, will grow larger and stronger, 
and change its appearance to suit its new 
work. 

Thus the fishes in the Mammoth Cave are 
blind because the darkness there has made the 
eyes useless for many preceding generations ; 
on the contrary, the eyes of the eagle, whose 
mode of life necessitates great strength and 
clearness of vision, would grow stronger and 
stronger with each age ; and if, by some acci- 
dent, the fish or bird were transferred to an en- 
tirely new element, the organs of their descend- 
ants would be so modified to suit their new life 
that they would be entirely changed in appear- 
ance. 

It must be remembered that these changes 
occur at great intervals of time, and that though 
any observing boy would be able at once to 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 343 

detect the difference between a wild and carrier 
pigeon, these differences are only the result of 
conditions which have existed for a compara- 
tively short time, while ages would elapse be- 
fore the winged reptile would develop into a 
bird. 

This theory of the development of species, 
which will always be connected with Darwin's 
name, was also advanced by Alfred Wallace, a 
Welshman, who was born in 1824, and who ar- 
rived at the same conclusion as Darwin, al- 
though each naturalist was ignorant of the 
others views until they were matured. In 1858, 
before the publication of Darwin's book, Wal- 
lace sent home from the Malay Archipelago a 
pamphlet containing a theory of the origin of 
species which was practically the same as Dar- 
win's, and the ideas of both naturalists were 
made known to the scientists of London at a 
meeting of the Linnaean Society in the same 
vear. 

Thus to both belong equal honors, and that 
two men, working quite independently, should 
arrive at the same result, is another instance 



344 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

of the fact that the realm of science belongs to 
no nation or age or individual, but is the com- 
mon heritage of all. 

The publication of the " Origin of Species " 
produced an immense sensation, and resulted 
in the division of scientists into many sects, 
who arrayed themselves as bitterly against one 
another as did the disciples of Aristotle against 
the followers of Copernicus ; and we must re- 
call the persecution of Galileo by the Inquisition 
to find a parallel for the vindictive enmity w hich 
followed Darwin for the next few years. 

But what the telescope did for the Coperni- 
can system, geology has done for Darwinism, 
and in the fossils of the far-off a^es we read 
the same story that is written in the pages of 
Darwin. 

Two years after the publication of the " Ori- 
gin of Species/' a fossil was found of a creature 
with the wings, feathers,, feet, and breast of a 
bird, and the head, teeth, and tail of a lizard ; 
an unmistakable proof of the former existence 
of a class of animals between reptiles and birds. 
And further studv of the fossils has revealed 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 345 

other intermediate forms of life just as remark- 
able. Fossils of reptiles standing on hind legs 
like those of the kangaroo, and fossils of birds 
with teeth have been found, while the forms of 
extinct quadrupeds show that the horse, with its 
hoofed foot, is descended from a much smaller 
animal with five toes, and that cats, dogs, bears, 
and many other animals differ as much to-day 
from their remote ancestry as the butterfly dif- 
fers from the caterpillar. And in the vegetable 
world the same thing has been found true, and 
the plants of to-day are connected in the same 
mysterious way with those of past ages, the 
form of fern and lily being but a repetition of 
the forest trees, and gigantic blossoms of the 
older world. 

And while geology has been the guiding 
light illuminating the past, so that its records 
might be thus easily read, the living world, too, 
adds its proofs that the changes alluded to by 
Darwin are still going on, and that in this as in 
other things the past may be studied from the 
present. 

The animals that inhabit islands, of the same 



346 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

species as those of the mainland, have their habits 
and organs altered by their changed conditions ; 
the birds, lizards, and insects of the desert are 
all of the neutral tints which correspond with 
the prevailing color of their surroundings — be- 
cause those are the conditions which best pro- 
tect them against their enemies, who would be 
more easily attracted to them if their color were 
brilliant. The fur of the same species of ani- 
mal is thicker in the north than in the south, 
and the same kind of shells differ in depth of 
color as they are found in deep or shallow wa- 
ter. And an infinite number of other instances 
might be shown to prove that the same forces 
which changed the scale-covered reptile to the 
bird furnished with wings and feathers are still 
at work. 

And thus, just as Newton and Herschel con- 
nected the earth by a magnetic chain to every 
star of heaven, so Darwin joined all the visible 
forms of life, and proved that each plant and 
animal is a link in the same chain, bound to- 
gether by a power as subtle as that which holds 
the stars. 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 347 

Among the great thinkers who have helped 
to popularize the opinions of Darwin, Professor 
Huxley, born in 1825, must rank first. Hux- 
ley's investigations have followed the same 
lines as those which mark the labors of Dar- 
win, and his independent researches and splen- 
did work for science have done much to place 
the Darwinian theory on a firm basis. This is 
due, first, to the fact that Huxley's original 
work is of such merit as to make his opinions 
carry great weight, and, secondly, because he 
has the gift of the interpreter, and whether he 
speaks of his own communings with nature, or 
translates the words of another, he is equally 
powerful and convincing ; and the work of Dar- 
win, which to many might have remained a 
sealed book, has been by the genius of Huxley 
rendered comprehensible, just as the works of 
a great composer reach the multitude through 
the medium of the performer, and the written 
notes become exquisite melody. 

Huxley's own works comprise studies in al- 
most every department of zoology, and are 
remarkable for their originality and depth of 



348 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

thought, and will ever be considered as inde- 
pendent and valuable supports of the new 
school of thought. 

The studies of the forms of animal life have 
led to a truer knowledge of the laws of develop- 
ment than the older naturalists thought it possi- 
ble to attain, and the mystery of life has been 
invested with a new interest from the discovery 
of the close connection between the animal and 
vegetable worlds. 

In his careful studies of organic life the nat- 
uralist has found it difficult often to tell where 
the one world leaves off and the other begins. 
Plants have been found so closely resembling 
animals as to make their place in the world of 
nature doubtful, as for instance the Sundew, 
which, by a singular arrangement of its organs, 
is able to capture insects and digest them by a 
process like that of animal digestion, and to feel 
the effect of anesthetics. On the other hand, 
certain organisms, as the sponge, which have 
been placed in the animal kingdom, are plant- 
like in their habits. 

Chemistry, electricity and the microscope 



DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 349 

have been effective agents in the study of 
the development of the different forms of life, 
and the results have been such as to place 
biology among the leading sciences of the day. 

Whether future study will reveal secrets that 
elude the biologist of to-day and discover yet 
closer relations between all forms of life is a 
question which carries its own answer with it, 
as the history of science has shown that the 
questions which one age asks the succeeding 
age answers, and that the progress of scientific 
thought is, on the whole, as sure as the growth 
of the oak from the acorn. 

The science of the present day has made its 
most far-reaching generalization in the state- 
ment that no energy is ever lost, but only 
changes its form ; the muscular force of man 
may, by the rubbing together of two pieces of 
wood, produce heat, and the heat light, and 
light is absorbed and transformed again into 
heat, or converted into chemical energy. Thus 
everywhere is seen one form of energy chang- 
ing to another, and all gradually tending toward 
heat. 



350 DARWIN AND HUXLEY. 

As the life of man is bound up with and de- 
pendent upon the mysterious forces of nature, 
his interest in them can never cease, and thus 
the last word for science can never be written 
while the race endures. 



SCRIBNER'S BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG. 
THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. 

How to Amuse Yourself and Others. 

By LINA and ADELA B. BEARD. 

With nearly 500 Illustrations by the authors. One volume, square 8vo. $3.00. 

Full of information upon the thousand and one things that interest every girl, 
this volume forms a notable companion to the book for boys by Daniel C. Beard, 
brother of the present authors, published last year. Everything that girls want to 
know about their sports, games, and winter afternoon and evening work, is told 
clearly and simply in this helpful and entertaining volume. Beginning with April 
Fool's Day, the authors take their readers through the circuit of the year, dwelling 
upon the sports, games, etc., appropriate to each season and to all the holidays, 
<md furnishing welcome instruction regarding the many little accomplishments 
that girls like to become proficient in. The volume is fully and handsomely illus- 
trated from drawings by the authors, whose designs are in the best sense illus- 
trative of the text. 

{Front the Author's Preface.} 

One of our objects is to impress upon the minds of the girls the fact that they all 
assess talent and ability to achieve more than they suppose possible, and we 
would encourage a belief in the remark made by a famous Frenchman : " When 
■you Americans undertake anything you never stop to ascertain if it be possible, 
you simply do it." 

We desire also to help awaken the inventive faculty, usually uncultivated in 
girls, and, by giving detailed methods of new work and amusement, to put them 
on the road which they can travel and explore alone. 

We know well the feeling of hopelessness which accompanies vague directions, 
and, to make our explanations plain and lucid, we have ourselves, with very few 
exceptions, made all of the articles, played the games, and solved the problems 
described. 

The materials employed in the construction of the various articles are within 
easy reach of all, and the outlay, in most cases, little or nothing. 

THE FIRST REALLY PRACTICAL BOY'S BOOK. 



THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK 3 - 

Or, WHAT TO DO AND HOW TO DO IT. 

By DANIEL C. BEARD. 

With 300 Illustrations by the author. One volume. 8vo. $2.00. 

Mr. Beard' ] s book is the first to tell the active, inventive, and practical Ameri- 
can boy the things he really wants to know, the thousand things he wants to do, 
and the ten thousand ways in which he can do them, zvith the helps and ingenious 
contrivances which every boy can either procure or make. 

The author divides the book among the sports of the four seasons ; and he has 
made an almost exhaustive collection of the cleverest modern devices, besidei 
himself inventing an immense number of capital and practical ideas. 



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SCRIBNER'S STANDARD JUVENILE BOOK& 

WILLIAM O. STODDARD'S CAPITAL STORIES FOR BOYS 



DAB KINZER. 

A STORY OF A GROWING BOY. 

THE QUARTET. 

A SEQUEL TO "DAB KINZER." 

SALTILLO BOYS. 

AMONG THE LAKES. 

WINTER FUN. 

Bach i Volume, i2mo., $1.00. In sets, in uniform binding, in a box. 
Price $5.00. 

Mr. Stoddard's stories for boys grow better and better every year. Good as were 
(i Dab Kinzer " and the " Quartet, " Saltillo Boys surpasses them in its narrative of 
bright, manly, and yet thoroughly boy-like life in an inland town, whose actual name 
and locality may be shrewdly guessed by those familiar with its characteristics. The 
incidents are thoroughly boyish, and yet quite free from frivolity. The drift of the 
book is wholly on the side of frank, intelligent, and self-reliant manliness; and it is 
impossible for any boy to read it without absorbing a love for nobility of character, 
and forming higher aspirations. 

TWO JUVENILES. -BY EDWARD EGGLESTON. 



THE HOOSIER SCHOOL-BOY. 

One volume, i2mo. With full-page illustrations, $ 1.00. 

QUEER STORIES FOR BOYS AND G-IRLS. 

One volume, i2mo, $ 1.00. 

Mr. Eggleston is one of the very few American writers who have succeeded in giving 
io their work a genuine . savor of the soil, a distinctively American Character. The 
scene of his stories is the Wester n Reserve, and the characters are types of the eariy 
part of this century, in the territory now comprised in Indiana and Ohio. The 
Hoosier School-Boy depicts some characteristics of boy life, years ago, on the Ohio, — 
characteristics, however, that were not peculiar to the section only. The story present! 
a vivid and interesting picture of the difficulties which in those days beset the path o r 
the youth aspiring for an education. 



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SCRIBNER'S BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG. 
A STORY OF THE GOLDEN AGE. 

By JAMES BALDWIN. 

With a series of superb full-page Illustrations by Howard Pyle. 

One volume, square 1 2mo. $1.50. 

In this book the author turns from the Northern myths and Mediaeval romance* 
tvhich engaged his attention, respectively, in "The Story of Siegfried" and c, 'The 
Story of Roland," and seeks to interest young people in the Homeric poems by 
weaving into a continuous narrative the legends relating to the cause of the Trojan 
War. Thus the romantic and stirring events which led to that War are set forth 
in a form most attractive to young people, and of no little interest to their elders 
as well. Mr. Pyle's illustrations are of extraordinary beauty, revealing grace, 
spirit, and vigor in the drawing, and being in perfect harmony with the antique 
flavor of the story. 

THE STORY OF SIEGFRIED. 

By JAMES BALDWIN. 

With a series of superb Illustrations by Howard Pylk, 

One volume, square 12-mo. $1.50. 

Mr. Baldwin has at last given "The Story of Siegfried " in the way in which it 
most appeals to the boy-reader, — simply and strongly told, with all its fire and 
action, yet without losing any of that strange charm of the myth, and that heroic 
pathos, which every previous attempt at a version, even for adult readers, has 
Sailed to catch, 

THE STORY OF ROLAND. 

By JAMES BALDWIN. 

With a series of Illustrations by R. B. Birch. 

One volume, square 1 2mo. $1.50. 

This volume is intended as a companion to "The Story of Siegfried." As 
Siegfried was an adaptation of Northern myths and romances to the wants and the 
understanding of young readers, so is this story a similar adaptation of the middle- 
age romances relating to Charlemagne and his paladins. As Siegfried was the 
greatest of the heroes of the North, so, too, was Roland the most famous among 
the Knights of the Middle Ages. 

" We congratulate the boys of the land upon the appearance of this book. We 
commend it to parents who are selecting literature for their children, assured, as 
we are, that it will convince them that books may be found which will engage the 
attention, and stimulate the imagination, of the young, without dissipating the 
mind, or blunting the moral sensibilities." — Philadelphia Messenger, 



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SCRIBNER'S BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG. 



LIVING LIGHTS. 

A Popular Account of Phosphorescent Animals and 
Vegetables. 

By CHARLES F. HOLDER. 

With twenty-eight full-page Illustrations. Square 8vo. $1.75. 

Mr. Holder gives in this book a wonderful fund of popular and entertaining 
facts concerning the mysterious light-giving animals and plants of the sea and 
land. Most of his information is fresh, having oeen acquired by his personal in- 
vestigation and observation, and the readers of the volume will be surprised to 
learn how fascinating is the story of these strange forms of life. One is astonished 
at learning the number of light-giving fish of all varieties that live in the sea ; and 
what could be more interesting than to follow the discussion as to the use to which 
these submarine lanterns are put by their owners ? Mr. Holder also takes one 
among the land insects that hang out their lamps at nightfall, explaining how the 
lights are generated and the peculiar uses to which they are put. The author 
writes in a pleasant, easy style, giving many curious and instructive anecdotes* 
based upon his personal experiences, which throw additional light upon the sub- 
jects of discussion, and the book is well supplied with superb illustrations. 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 

MARVELS OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

Square 8vo, with thirty -tivo full-page II hist rat ions. $1.75. 

" One of the most remarkable of recent publications. . . . The kind of book 
that ought to find its place in libraries for boys and girls of a thoughtful and inquir- 
ing turn of mind. It not only satisfies a healthful curiosity but it furnishes a 
world of substantial information." — The Christian Union. 

THE IVORY KING. 

A Popular History of the Elephant and Its Allies. 

Square 8vo, with twenty -four full-page Illustrations. $1.75. 

"The book contains a surprising mass of information, and the author has woven 
the whole into a most entertaining narrative." — The Chicago Times. 



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SCRIBNER'S BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG. 

>__ ■ -* 

THE MODERN VIKINGS. 

Stories of Life and Sport in the Norseland. 

By HJALMAR H. BOYESEN. 

With many full-page Illustrations. One volume, 1 2 mo. $2.00. 

The cold, invigorating air of the North blows through these pages, but warm, 
te.d blood runs in the veins of the brave lads who are the heroes of the tales : 
Whether they are beset by wolves, or suspended by a single strand of rope 'twixt 
sky and sea, or buried beneath the snow with starvation staring at them, or fish- 
ing for salmon with a tame otter, or are wrecked on a rocky coast, the boys will 
be sure to follow their fortunes with zest and the keenest pleasure. The vigor and 
the spirit of the narratives are happily matched by similar qualities in the numer. 
ous full-page illustrations in the book. 



WHITE COCKADES, 

An Incident of the " Forty-Five.' » 

By EDWARD IRENiEUS STEVENSON. 

One volume, 1 2mo. $1.00. 

A Scotch story of the Second Rebellion of the Jacobites, replete with excitinsf 
incidents, and told in a manner remarkable for its freshness and vigor. A refugee, 
who is supposed to be a young Jacobite nobleman, but who turns out to be some- 
thing very different, is the hero of some strange adventures in the house of an 
honest Highland Jacobite, where he has secured shelter from his pursuers. A 
vivid and faithful picture is given of the conflicts between the King's soldiers and 
the rebellious Highlanders, which, with the narrow escape of the disguised refugee, 
rind other stirring incidents, make up a tale that every boy will heartily enjoy. 



A NEW AND CHEAPER EDITION. 

MY KALULU. 

Prince, King", and Slave. A Story of Central Africa, 

By HENKY M. STANLEY. 

One volume, 121110^ with many Illustrations. $1.50. 

Mr. Stanley's African romance for boys is based upon knowledge acquired 
during his journey in search of Dr. Livingstone, which began in 1871 and ended in 
1872. It is a fascinating story of strange scenes, incidents, and adventures among 
the tribes of Central Africa, and of encounters with wild animals that make their 
hom~ there. One feature of the book is its vivid description of the evils of the 
Slave trade. The popularity of the story was great, and as it has been out of print, 
the publishers have issued a new and cheaper edition, which will no doubt meet 
with the same hearty reception accorded to the first. 



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SCRIBNER'S STANDARD JUVENILE BOOKS. 



FRANK R. STOCKTON'S POPULAR STORIES- 



THE STORY OF VITEAU. 

With sixteen full-page illustrations by R. B. Birch. 
Oiie volume, J 2 mo, extra cloth. $1.50. 

In " The Story of Viteau," Mr. Stockton has opened a new vein, and one that he 
has shown all his well-known skill and ability in working. While describing the life 
and surroundings of Raymond, Louis, and Agnes at Viteau at the Castle of De Bar- 
ran, or in the woods among the Cotereaux, he gives a picture of France in the age 
of chivalry, and tells, at the same time, a romantic and absorbing story of adventure 
and knightly daring. Mr. Birch's spirited illustrations add much to the attraction of 
the book. 

A JOLLY FELLOWSHIP. 

Illustrated. One volume, 121710, extra cloth. $1.50. 

" ' A Jolly Fellowship,' by Mr. Frank Stockton, is a worthy successor to his * Rud- 
der Grange.' Although written for lads, it is full of delicious nonsense that will be 
enjoyed by men and women. . . . The less serious parts are described with a mock 
gravity that is the perfection of harmless burlesque, while all the nonsense has a vein 
of good sense running through it, so that really useful information is conveyed to the 
young and untravelled reader's mind." — Philadelphia Evening Bulletin. 



THE FLOATING PRINCE, AND OTHER 
FAIRY TALES. 

With illustrations by Bensell and others. One vohtme, quarto, boards. $1.50. 

" Stockton has the knack, perhaps genius would be a better word, of writing in the 
easiest of colloquial English, without descending to the plane of the vulgar or common- 
place. The very perfection of his work hinders the reader from perceiving at once 
how good of its kind it is. . . . With the added charm of a most delicate humor, — • 
a real humor, mellow, tender, and informed by a singularly quaint and racy fancy, 
^-his stories become irresistibly attractive." — Philadelphia Times. 

NEW EDITIONS OF OLD FAVORITES. 



ROUNDABOUT RAMBLES IN LANDS OF 
FACT AND FICTION. 

One volume, quarto, boards, with very attractive lithographed cover, three hundred and 
seventy pages, two hundred illustrations. A new edition. Price reduced from 
$3.00 to $1.50. 

TALES OUT OF SCHOOL. 

One volume, quarto, boards, with handsome lithographed cover, three hundred and 
fifty pages, nearly two hundred illustrations. A new edition. Price reduced from 
$3.00 to $1.50. 

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SCRIBNER'S STANDARD JUVENILE BOOKS. 



THE BOY'S 

Library of Legend and Chivalry. 

EDITED BY SIDNEY LANIER, 

And richly illustrated by FREDERICKS, BENSELL, and KAPPES. 



THE BOY'S KING ARTHUR. THE BOYS FROISSART. 

KNIGHTLY LEGENDS OF WALES. THE BOY'S PERCY. 

Four volumes, cloth, uniform binding. Price per set $ 7.00. 
Sold separately. Price per volume $ 2.00. 



" Amid all the strange and fanciful scenery of these stories, character and the ideals 
pf character remain at the simplest and the purest. The romantic history transpires 
in the healthy atmosphere of the open air, on the green earth beneath the o\^s>. sky 
. . . The figures of Right, Truth, Justice, Honor, Purity, Courage, Reverence for 
Law, are always in the background; and the grand passion inspired by the book i^ 
for strength to do well and nobly in the world." — The Independent. 



THE BOY'S 

Library of Pluck and Action. 

A JOLLY FELLOWSHIP, 

By Frank R. Stockton. 

HANS BRINKER; 
OR, THE SILVER SKATES. 

a story of life in holland. 
By Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge. 



THE BOY EMIGRANTS, 

By Noah Brooks. 

PHAETON ROGERS, 

By Rossiter Johnson. 



Four volumes, i2mo, in a box, illustrated; $5.00. 
Sold separately, price per volume $ 1.50. 

In the " Boy's Library of Pluck and Action, " the design was to bring together 
ihe representative and most popular books of four of the best known writers for young 
people. The names of Mary Mapes Dodge, Frank R. Stockton, Noah Brooks, and 
Rossiter Johnson are familiar ones in every household, and a set of books, to which 
each has contributed one, forms a present that will delight the heart of every boy who 
likes manly, spirited, and amusing tales. The volumes are beautifully illustrated and 
uniformly bound in a most attractive form. 



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SCRIBNER'S BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG, 

FORTY-EIGHTH THOUSAND. 

LITTLE LORD FAUNTLEROY. 

By FRANCES HODGSON BURNETT. 

Beautifully illustrated by R. B. Birch. One volume, square 8zo, handsomely 
bound. $2.00. 

" In ' Little Lord Fauntleroy ' we gain another charming child to add to our 
gallery of juvenile heroes and heroines ; one who teaches a great lesson with 
such truth and sweetness that we part with him with real regret when the episode 
is over." — Louisa M. Alcott. 

UNIFORM WITH "LITTLE LORD FAUNTLEROY." 

SARA CREWE; 

Or, WHAT HAPPENED AT MISS MINCHIN>S. 

By FRANCES HODGSON BURNETT. 
Illustrated by R. B. Birch. Square 8vo. gi.oo. 

As a beautiful story filled with an exquisite pathos and sweetness, "Sara 
Crewe" will at once take rank with the author's enormously successful "Little 
Lord Fauntleroy," now in its Forty-fifth thousand. Few of the tens of thousands 
of people, young and old, who have been charmed by Mrs. Burnett's narrative 
of the adventures of her boy-hero will be satisfied until they have read about the 
strange things that befell Sara Crewe at Miss Minchin's. 

As her former story had a boy for its hero, so this has a girl for its heroine — a 
weircL, queer little creature, whose elfish cleverness and odd ways, with her ro- 
mantic imaginings and "supposes," are made of striking interest by the exquisite 
art with which the author has woven them into the texture of the story, and make 
every reader her friend. Mr. Birch's illustrations admirably reflect the spirit of 
the story, 

A NEW EDITION OF AN OLD FAVORITE. 

HANS BRINKER; or, The Silver Skates. 

A STOUT OF LIFE IN HOLE AND. 

By MARY MAPES DODGE. 

One volume, 121710, with sixty beautiful illustrations. $1.50. 

The cordial appreciation with which "Hans Brinker" was first received has 
increased from year to year, until the original plates have become badly worn 
from constant use. The publishers have therefore reissued at half its original price 
their beautiful Holiday Edition, of which on its first appearance the Nation said : 
"We some time ago expressed our opinion that Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge's de- 
lightful children's story called 'Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates,' deserved 
an entirely new dress, with illustrations made in Holland instead of America. 
The publishers have just issued an edition in accordance with this suggestion. The 
pictures are admirable, and the whole volume, in appearance and contents, need 
not fear comparison with any juvenile publication of the year or of many years." 



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i^M^a 



8N 




